Environmental Engineering Reference
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typology of the natural resources discussed is a basic necessity and general condition for
a thorough andmeaningful analysis of conflicts over these natural resources. As a single
classification is highly unlikely, scholars should at least indicate their understanding
and use of the concept in detail. Let us now turn to the concept of conflicts before we
hone in on natural resources and conflicts in Africa.
4.4 WHAT ARE CONFLICTS?
The Oxford Dictionary (2013b) defines a conflict as “a serious disagreement or argu-
ment, typically a protracted one.'' Academic definitions are manifold, but let us briefly
present some of these views, irrespective of whether they are directly applicable to
natural resource use. According to Stephen Robbins (nd) conflicts are “all kinds of
opposition or antagonistic interaction between two or more parties.'' A conflict is
usually based on scarcity of resources, power, or social position, and differing value
systems. Robbins, a management scholar, distinguishes three phases in the history
of conflict theory: traditionalist (19th century up to 1940), behaviourist (1940/50
onwards) and interactionist (1970s onwards). The philosophy towards the acceptance
of conflicts in an organisation has changed from zero, to unavoidable, to actually
stimulating some kind and level of conflict as it is argued to improve the output and
professionalism of the organisation.
Conflict is a major factor in processes of change and transformation. Hence Peil
and Oyeneye (1998: 290) remark, “more generally, conflict theorists argue that the
pressures for change in society are ubiquitous, as various interest groups struggle for
power and resources. Out of conflict, society changes its perceptions about others.''
The conflict transformation theory argues that parties shift position, set out new goals,
new players and new interests come to the fore. Conflict transformation is therefore “a
process of engaging with and transforming the relationships, interests, discourses and,
if necessary, the very constitution of society that support conflict'' (Lederach 2005: 4).
Said et al. (2009) report five ways of dealing with conflicts, ranging from
'avoidance', 'accommodation', 'competition or aggression', to 'compromise' and 'col-
laboration or problem-solving'. The latter is considered to be the best approach to
both resolving a conflict and maintaining relationships in a community. It is acknowl-
edged, however, that this is a lengthy and challenging process. Help may nevertheless
come from three sides: customary, national and collaborative systems of conflict man-
agement. As we will argue later, however, the geographical scope is broader than is
suggested by these three terms. Whether the approach by Said et al. is of value for
conflicts over natural resources involving different players holding different levels of
financial power, knowledge and political strength, requires further scrutiny.
4.5 AFRICAN SCHOLARS AND NATURAL RESOURCE CONFLICTS
Frerks (Chapter 2) summarises the various and changing natural resource conflict
discourses that have prevailed over the years. In this section we will turn to some
African scholars who have contributed to the debate on natural resources and conflicts.
Obi (1997) has criticised some of the modernist neo-Malthusian approaches that fail to
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