Environmental Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
improve rural livelihoods, reduce poverty and stimulate rural development. In spite
of the potential of biofuel plantations to reinvigorate Africa's rural areas through job
creation and income generation, apprehension about the negative environmental and
social impacts of large-scale commercial biofuel production remains (Acheampong
2013). Indigenous farming systems, local communities and the biodiversity they man-
age are pushed aside in favour of the increased fuel needs of the industrialised world
(Gebremedhine 2008). At the same time, there are concerns that large-scale biofuel
development could cause rising food prices, land grabbing, ecological damage, wildlife
destruction and disruption of rural livelihoods (Amsalu and Kinfu 2013). Many coun-
tries do not have the legal or procedural mechanisms in place to protect local rights, or
to take into account local interests, livelihoods and welfare. Even where legal require-
ments for community consultation are in place, the involvement of local communities
in the negotiation process is not guaranteed. Insecure use rights on state-owned land,
inaccessible registration procedures, vaguely defined productive use requirements, leg-
islative gaps, and compensation limited to loss of improvements like crops and trees
(thus excluding loss of land) all undermine the position of local people (Cotula et al.
2009).
Africa has become an important target producer of the necessary feedstocks for
biofuel production. In particular, land has been acquired for production of
Jatropha
curcas
as a feedstock for biofuel production in Ghana and Ethiopia. Jatropha curcas,
commonly called the physic nut, now grows pantropic even though its native range
is tropical America (Achten et al. 2007). Jatropha is a plant with many attributes
and considerable potential (Openshaw 2000). It has been promoted for its numerous
woody by-products, such as pruning waste and fruit hulls that can be combusted locally
as a fuel source (Achten et al. 2010), and those by-products of use in micro-industries,
such as the manufacturing of soaps and candles. Jatropha is thought to help prevent soil
erosion caused by rainwater, reclaimdegraded lands, and act as a living fence to exclude
browsing animals (Openshaw 2000; Achten et al. 2007; Achten et al. 2008; Achten
et al. 2010). It is also of great interest to the global biofuel industry as a feedstock.
Trends around the world indicate a shift towards Jatropha as a viable and sustainable
alternative to traditional biodiesel feedstocks, such as palm and soya (KnowGenix
2007). In 2008, Jatropha was planted on an estimated 900,000 ha globally, of which
760,000 ha (85 percent) were in Asia, followed by 120,000 ha in Africa (mostly in
Madagascar and Zambia, but also in Tanzania and Mozambique), and 20,000 ha in
Latin America (Brittaine et al. 2010). It is postulated that over half of the land in Africa
is suitable for Jatropha cultivation (Jingura et al. 2011).
In spite of claims promoting Jatropha's attributes, there are many misconceptions,
unsubstantiated claims and research gaps that need to be considered, particularly given
the projected expansion of Jatropha cultivation across the tropics. After all, Jatropha
is still a wild plant; many of its basic properties are not thoroughly understood and
the environmental effects have yet to be investigated (Achten et al. 2008). A number
of dubious claims surrounding Jatropha suggest that it will enhance socio-economic
development while reclaiming marginal and degraded lands; is drought tolerant; is a
high yielding crop; grows well under saline conditions; and does not compete with food
production. Yet there is very little, if any, evidence to substantiate these types of claims.
There is a lack of information about Jatropha's potential yield under sub-optimal and
marginal conditions (Jongschaap et al. 2007; Ariza-Montobbio et al. 2010a; Brittaine
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