Environmental Engineering Reference
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since 2000 which set a new political agenda. The country was traditionally ruled by a
conservative establishment and was marked by political instability. The ascendency of
the political group 'Movement Towards Socialism' (Movimiento al Socialismo, MAS) -
with EvoMorales, coming from the indigenous-peasant population - marked a turning
point. The MAS - as the name already suggests - is not a traditional political party,
but rather a political movement. Its leader, Evo Morales first became known as a trade
union leader for coca farmers opposing neoliberal policies and US-sponsored anti-
drug policies, rather than through electoral politics. The election of Morales and the
subsequent changes to the Bolivian state have been hailed as revolutionary by some
(Dunkerley 2007), including the government, which gave its policies and initiatives
titles such as the 'agrarian revolution', the 'ethical revolution' and the 'educational
revolution' (Bolivia. Ministerio de Desarrollo Rural, Agropecuario y Medio Ambi-
ente, 2007). Before becoming Vice-President, Alvaro García Linera argued that the
social conditions in Bolivia were not ripe for socialism. Post-election, however, García
Linera instead set the development of a 'Andean-Amazonian Capitalism' that could
be the basis for a transformation toward socialism in the medium-long term as the
primary objective of his government (García Linera 2008). Lately, he has adopted a
different discourse that establishes communitarian socialism as the goal of the politi-
cal process (García Linera 2010). From this point of view, the government's project is
going through a phase where a stronger state is transferring resources from the private
sector to communitarian organisations.
Ecuador similarly makes for a highly relevant location to observe the actual impact
of the Latin American Left Turn. During his first inauguration ceremony in January
2007, the newly elected president, Rafael Correa, called for 21st century socialism
that aimed at 'leaving the night of neo-liberal policies behind'. Since then, Correa has
enjoyed unprecedented popularity and was re-elected by a landslide in the April 2009
elections. Reconfigurations of nature-society relationships have been portrayed as both
the means and ends of the 'Citizens' Revolution' launched by Correa and his political
vehicle, the Alianza PAIS. Since assuming power, the Correa government has forced
several foreign owned oil companies to leave Ecuador, made changes to the constitu-
tion introducing the 'rights of nature', opened up the possibility of extensive mineral
extraction (primarily of gold and copper), and made an international proposal to aban-
don oil extraction in the ecologically significant Yasuni National Park in exchange for
approximately US$3.5 billion. Referring to the dramatic (and often contradictory)
political events taking place throughout Latin America, Arturo Escobar asserted that
“Latin America is the only region in the world where some counter-hegemonic pro-
cesses of importance might be taking place at the level of the State at present'' (Escobar
2011: 1).
In this context, Bolivia and Ecuador have both been undergoing a highly con-
tested nationalisation process of their extractive industries, and this process cannot
be understood simply as a state takeover of private enterprises. It is more accurately
described as the increased presence of the state in extractive processes, a presence that
can manifest itself in numerous ways, and at different stages and scales. This increased
role of the state is concomitant with the recognition and the implementation of new
and old rights related to nature, as well as the use and governance of natural resources,
including land. In both countries, the overall management of natural resources and the
nature-society interactions are now claimed to be oriented towards the achievement of
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