Multilevel Environmental Impact Analysis - Environmental Impact Analysis: Process and Methods - page 253

Generally, the least comprehensive and narrowest type of activity
appropriate for an SEA is a program. This would be comparable to a program-
matic EIS as discussed earlier. The program and SEA for the U.S. energy self-
sufficiency example might identify an energy conservation target and the
percentage of required energy that would be obtained from various sources
such as nuclear, coal, wind, solar, hydroelectric, and fossil fuel. The program
and SEA for energy might also identify on a regional basis not only what
percentage of energy would come from each source but also alternative gen-
eral geographic locations, materials extraction approaches, and processing
methods (e.g., nuclear waste management and petroleum exploration and
refinement). An SEA for the USFS multiuse example could include identifi-
cation of alternative target uses for individual forests, areas where each use
could occur, and the types of impacts that could occur for each alternative
use in each alternative area. Any proposed action less than a program would
typically be considered a project and more appropriately evaluated using an
environmental impact analysis approach as described throughout this topic,
rather than an SEA procedure.
Project- or action-specific environmental impact analyses most frequently
address infrastructure improvements, water resources development, private
development, military activities, or transportation initiatives. These types
of actions will almost always infringe in some way on one or more envi-
ronmental resources in order to deliver a benefit to some societal need or
desire. The goal of the individual environmental analysis for one of these
actions is to evaluate the impact on the resource and identify the alterna-
tive that will cause the least environmental impact so that decision makers
can weigh the societal benefits against the environmental costs and make
informed decisions. In contrast, a policy, plan, or program (PPP) amenable
to an SEA is typically for an action intended to rectify past and/or prevent
future environmental harm. In the examples described earlier, the PPP for
energy development is intended to prevent environmental (both natural and
social) damage from oil extraction and produce environmental benefits by
reduction of greenhouse gases and the resulting climate change. Similarly,
the USFS example addresses potential infringement on one use of the envi-
ronment (such as hiking in wilderness areas) by controlling other uses
(e.g., air tours or all-terrain vehicle use) such that all uses can be achieved
with minimal conflict. In this context, a conventional EA for a project is to
enable the project “to do the least environmental harm” as opposed to an
SEA where the goal can be considered to “do the most environmental good”
(Sadler et al. 2011).
The need for programs to rectify or prevent environmental damage was not
included in the development of NEPA, so SEA was not directly addressed in the
Act or its implementing regulations. However, there is a growing recognition
of the benefits of applying SEA in the United States and many other countries,
which are currently formulating and implementing SEA requirements and
procedures. In the United States, expansion and enhancement of the tiered and