Roboethics - Ethical Engineering for International Development and Environmental Sustainability - page 69

which there are several different types (Pamecha et al. 1997 ; Yim et al. 2002 ). They
comprise large numbers of connected robots of the same type and physical properties
or a small number of different types. These robots are able to diagnose and replace
faulty modules, increasing robustness, and are very useful in tasks that need versatil-
ity. Applications include obstacle avoidance in highly constrained and unstructured
environments and 'growing' bridges, buttresses and other structures in emergencies
(Pamecha et al. 1997 ). However, the need for a very large number of modules could
make the total cost very high even if the unit cost is very low (Yim et al. 2002 ).

2.3 Mobile Robots

While all robots raise some ethical issues, these are particularly important for
mobile, autonomous and intelligent robots. Mobile robots generally have the
following features or characteristics which are required for effective and unobtru-
sive operation:

1. Physical structure, including expressive ability: What the robot looks like and its
ability to express 'emotions' and respond to the user will affect potential users'
responses and the effectiveness of the interaction with the robot.
2. Mobility system: The robot has a means of moving itself which is appropriate to
the intended activities and the environment. The most common means are wheels
followed by legs. Other options include suction cups and adhesive pads. The
mobility system also includes one or more motors and drivers.
3. Autonomy: Some degree of 'independent' decision-making and control. In some
cases, such as the case of many intelligent/robotic wheel chairs and other service
robots, there is shared control between the user and the robot (Goodrich et al.
2001 ; Yu et al. 2003 ).
4. Human-machine interface (HMI): An interface with the human operator or user
is required to enable the user to provide instructions and receive information and
feedback. The interface should be designed to be easy and intuitive to use. The
type of interface will depend on the type of users and the circumstances. For
instance, a speech interface has advantages for many users but is not suitable in
noisy environments or for deaf users.
5. System of sensors: This should include both proprioceptive sensors to obtain
information about the robot's state and exteroceptive sensors to obtain informa-
tion about the environment. Sensors may include cameras, infrared sensors,
sonars and laser range fi nders.
6. Processors: This may involve one or more microprocessors, laptops or other
devices. The processors can be onboard or external. The processors are pro-
grammed to carry out the functions situated in many of the other modules.
7. Multilayer architecture for intelligent robot control system: This allows different
types of behaviours and interactions between the robot and the user at different
levels.