Ethical Engineering: Definitions, Theories and Techniques - Ethical Engineering for International Development and Environmental Sustainability - page 51

(d) Being aware of and avoiding potential confl icts of interest. These arise in
different ways. For instance, there is a confl ict of interest if you are review-
ing a paper or grant proposal and have an interest in the paper or proposal
being accepted. If you are in doubt, it is advisable to inform the organisers/
person in charge and let them make the decision.

4. Safety:

(a) Evaluating safety, risk and ethical issues and obtaining permission from rel-
evant ethics committees before starting the research. The research aims and
methodology may have to be modifi ed to take account of ethical, safety and
risk issues.
(b) In the worst case, being prepared not to do the research if it is not possible to
do it ethically.

Bias is an error which is consistently in one direction. A biased sample in a survey
or questionnaire is one which is unrepresentative due to systematic errors. In general
only a (relatively small) proportion of respondents will reply to most types of survey.
This gives two possible types of bias, which there is an ethical responsibility to try to
reduce as far as possible. These are (1) bias due to the choice of an unrepresentative
sample and (2) bias due to certain groups being more likely to respond than others.

4.3 Working with Human Participants

The British Psychological Society has drawn up Ethical Principles for Conducting
Research with Human Participants. These principles (BPS 1990 ) are summarised
below and are widely used, not just in the UK:

1 . Voluntary informed consent . Investigators will inform all participants of the
objectives of the investigation. They must agree voluntarily to participate in the
research.
2 . Right to withdraw . Investigators will explain in clear terms to participants their
right to withdraw from the research at any time, irrespective of whether or not
payment or any other inducement has been offered.
3 . Deception. Withholding of information or misleading of participants is
unacceptable.
4 . Confi dentiality. Information obtained about a participant during the investigation
is confi dential unless otherwise agreed in advance.
5 . Protection of participants . Investigators have a primary responsibility to protect
participants from physical and mental harm during the investigation.

Voluntary informed consent requires that subjects are given information on the
following:

1. The main aims of the research or other activity.
2. The specifi c details of their desired involvement, i.e. exactly what they are