Environmental Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
appropriately defi ned needs can be used to correct structural and other inequalities.
On the other hand, using the concept of rights to correct inequalities can be more
empowering and therefore more in accordance with the principle of autonomy.
Rawls (
1971
) has a theory of justice with an egalitarian basis, which he presents
in terms of the following two principles:
1. Everyone is entitled to the most extensive basic liberty which is compatible with
similar liberty for everyone else.
2. Social and economic inequalities should be arranged so that (a) they are expected
to be of the greatest benefi t to the least-advantaged members of the society,
consistent with the just savings principle (
the difference principle
). (b) Offi ces and
positions are open to everyone under conditions of fair equality of opportunity.
The aim of the second principle, which Rawls calls the difference principle, is to
ensure that social inequalities are distributed in ways that reduce disadvantage,
rather than that there are no inequalities, and that no-one should be advantaged or
disadvantaged on the basis of factors such as sex, race, religion or the presence or
absence of particular skills. He also suggests that everyone would adopt this prin-
ciple if they were situated behind a 'veil of ignorance' in which they did not know
their situation. However, it has been suggested that some people would prefer a
more risky and unequal system. There are also many people, including the author,
who would prefer the total abolition of disadvantage and inequality with improved
rights and opportunities for everyone. In terms of justice, it could also be argued that
social and economic inequalities are unjust; however they are distributed and
should be eliminated. It also seems probable that, while there are inequalities, they
will have most affect on the people who are currently disadvantaged. The just sav-
ings principle relates to intergenerational equality. It could be argued that removing
inequality would lead to advantages for future generations, though this would need
to be done in ways that do not signifi cantly affect the availability of resources.
Discussions of justice in the literature and the theories and principles posed
by particular authors depend largely on their particular political philosophies.
Therefore, authors with libertarian political philosophies or who support (free) mar-
ket economics and politics will be critical even of not particularly radical egalitarian
philosophies such as Rawl's and be more concerned with theories of justice that
defend individuals against the state rather than considering society as a whole. They
will also be opposed to any elements of planning or patterning of society. From my
particular socialist perspective, both the rights of individuals and society are impor-
tant, and the just distribution of resources and opportunities to everyone, regardless
of factors such as sex, race or disability, is required. This illustrates how it is often
very diffi cult to separate consideration of ethics from political and other values.
Feminist writers such as Okin (
1989
) have criticised both the more egalitarian and
libertarian approaches to theories of justice for ignoring justice issues associated
with gender relations and implicitly assuming that women will continue to do most
of the domestic work, without which society cannot function. It could therefore be
useful to situate discussion of justice within the 'norm' of a disabled, Black, lesbian
who is a single parent mother and living in one of the African countries. This could
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