Ethics, Scientists, Engineers and the Military - Ethical Engineering for International Development and Environmental Sustainability - page 335

Measures for the Further Reduction and Limitation of Strategic Offensive Arms
(New START). It limits each of Russia and the USA to no more than 1,550
accountable nuclear weapons deployed on strategic missiles and bombers. This is a
nominal reduction of 30% from the 'SORT' limit of 2,200 accountable warheads in
2002 and nearly 75% from the START limit of 6,000 accountable warheads in 1991.
The total limit on deployed and undeployed delivery systems (intercontinental and
submarine-launched ballistic missiles and long-range heavy bombers) for each side
is 800, of which no more than 700 can be deployed. Russia wanted a lower limit of
500 delivery vehicles to counter the US advantage of a greater number of deliv-
ery vehicles with fewer warheads on each onto which it could redeploy stored war-
heads. The limits cover conventionally armed ballistic missiles. However, the treaty
does not restrict the use of missile 'defences' (Kile 2011 ) or require missile disman-
tling, and the USA met the START limitations largely by removing and storing
warheads (James Martin Center 2010 ).
There were 29 mandatory multilateral arms embargoes in force in 2010, directed
at 16 targets. These included 12 United Nations embargoes, one from the Economic
Community of West African States and 16 European Union embargoes, of which 10
implemented UN embargoes, two had different coverage and four had no UN
equivalent. There were also a number of violations of these embargoes (Wezeman
and Kelly 2011 ).
Attempts to regulate the international trade in conventional weapons have not
been particularly successful. The Arms Trade Treaty (Holtom and Bromley 2013a )
was adopted by the UN General Assembly in 2013, and came into force in December
2014. 62 states have ratifi ed it and a further 68 have signed, but not ratifi ed it (Anon
2015 ). The treaty is not particularly strong. Its scope is limited to the seven types of
weapons listed in the United Nations Register of Conventional Arms plus the addi-
tional category of small arms and light weapons. There are three categories of pro-
hibited transfer, largely based on existing obligations under international law. States
are required to carry out a risk assessment of the likely use of the arms to commit or
facilitate a breach of human rights or terrorism and a general assessment of whether
their export will contribute to or undermine peace and security. States are also
required to consider measures to avoid (1) diversion to illicit markets or organised
crime, (2) use to commit violence against children or women, (3) corrupt deals and
(4) negative impacts on the importing states. However, existing defence cooperation
agreements have primacy over the Treaty. As a result of very strong opposition from
the USA to the inclusion of ammunition in the treaty, it only requires a national
control system to regulate the export of ammunition with such exports not allowed
if in the prohibited categories or if they could be used to commit or facilitate human
rights violations or terrorism, but no requirements to take measures to prevent
diversion or to keep records.
The Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe (Bodell 2013 ) was negotiated
and signed by the members of the Warsaw Treaty Organisation and NATO under the
framework of the Conference on (later Organisation for) Security and Cooperation