Ethics, Scientists, Engineers and the Military - Ethical Engineering for International Development and Environmental Sustainability - page 324

Examination of this model shows the importance of resolving the underlying
issues which could lead to confl ict and working on the context to discourage confl ict
as an approach to resolving problems. However, many countries, including the
USA, are still focusing on high-technology weapon-based approaches to security
rather than peace building or trying to resolve underlying problems. This is despite
evidence of the inadequacies of this approach, both with regard to avoiding or
solving current major confl icts and for long-term security. This tendency has been
increased by the US so-called war on terror, leading to the marginalisation of
non- offensive approaches to security (Langley et al. 2007 ).
Non-offensive or defensive defence (Schofeld 2002 ) involves armed forces
which are able to provide a 'credible defence', but excludes nuclear weapons and
long-range aircraft, missiles and warships which can be used to threaten other coun-
tries. Humanitarian intervention (Roth 2004 ) involves using limited military force
to try to prevent mass killing or genocide when there is an imminent threat, other
measures have been exhausted, and approval of the UN Security Council has been
obtained. Recognition of the vulnerability of civilians in modern confl icts and the
importance of protecting them has led to the related concepts of the 'protection of
civilians' and the 'responsibility to protect' (Evans 2012 ). This then raises the issue
of how these principles are translated into action (Evans 2012 ). In addition, there are
the contradictions associated with the use of force to protect people and the possibility
of the extension or diversion of interventions with the initial or purported aim of
protecting civilians to carry out unrelated aims. For instance, the North Atlantic
Treaty Organisation (NATO) action in response to the killing of civilian protesters
in Libya and the high probability of many more being killed is credited with saving
a large number of civilian lives. It is also criticised for subsequently continuing
operations to achieve regime change and attacking both fl eeing personnel from the
air and locations without military signifi cance (Evans 2012 ).
There are also so-called peacekeeping operations, frequently involving military
forces and sometimes political and observer operations. While the United Nations has
remained the main conducting organisation and responsible for 38% of the 52 peace
operations in 2011, NATO provided 52% of the personnel (Fanchini 2012 ). This high-
lights the potential problems with peacekeeping operations. These include the likeli-
hood of peacekeeping being used as a screen to achieve narrow national or NATO
objectives and unnecessary extensions of operations to achieve other objectives.
Real security (Langley et al. 2005 ) requires the solution of underlying serious
problems, including climate change, global poverty, access to clean water and
energy sources, loss of biodiversity and environmental degradation. Scientifi c and
technological expertise have a role in resolving these problems. However, a change
in political priorities will also be necessary, and achieving this will probably require
sustained campaigning by a range of organisations, including those representing
(ethical) scientists and engineers.
A range of issues can lead to confl ict (Hersh 2013 ; Stewart 1998 ), including
resources, environmental and economic issues, land disputes, human rights violations
and inequalities between different social groups, clashes of ideologies and/or cultures
and ethnic tensions, particularly when the minority group is between 10 and 40% of