The Ethical Use of Outer Space - Ethical Engineering for International Development and Environmental Sustainability - page 125

out of reach of many countries - especially the majority world countries (see the
discussion on costs in Sect. 4.6 ). Therefore, the exploration of space should be pur-
sued in an international context - outer space having been acknowledged as the
common heritage of (hu)mankind.
Space policies should keep in mind the vulnerability of human beings and
respond to public anxieties through an objective, independent and transparent
approach - interaction between scientists and experts in different disciplines, elected
representatives, political decision-makers and the media. Motivations need to be
questioned - the inalienability of space as a scientifi c territory should guarantee free
access and protection against pollution from space debris - there is a need for the
management of risks in space, especially those associated with debris and the use of
nuclear reactors. What has become very clear recently is that operators with access
to space are able to penetrate the private sphere of citizens through satellite surveil-
lance, communications and positioning - so protections of individual liberties, cul-
tural identities, etc., are needed.
In fact a number of international agreements and understandings on the use of
outer space have been made, many with ethical as well as practical concerns. It is
worth looking at what the international community has been able to achieve so far.
In September 2000, the Project for the New American Century (an infl uential
think tank established in 1997 'to promote American global leadership' 20 ) published
a report entitled Rebuilding America's Defenses; Strategy, Forces and Resources
For a New Century ; it showed how the future space policy of the United States
would be developed by Donald Rumsfeld and George W. Bush et al.:
Much as control of the high seas - and the protection of international commerce - defi ned
global powers in the past, so will control of the new 'international commons' be a key to
world power in the future. An America incapable of protecting its interests or that of its
allies in space or the 'infosphere' will fi nd it diffi cult to exert global political leadership.
(Jessop 2008 )
However, PNAC was shut down in 2006, and although it perhaps did exert some
infl uence in its heyday, its ideas did not really dominate (Reynolds 2006 ). The par-
allel between space and the 'freedom of the high seas' can be seen as an exploitative
colonial paradigm that is not applicable to space. International law has changed over
the last 500 years, and events such as de-colonisation and the formation of the
United Nations have introduced a certain element of cooperation and brought about
a structural change in international law. Many believe therefore that there is a need
for a 'Treaty on the Cooperative Use of Outer Space' that goes beyond the mere
prohibition of weapons in space and would lay the foundation for Common Security
in Outer Space.
20 PNAC was founded in 1997 by William Kristol and Robert Kagan; it was a strong proponent of
military strength, promoting the view that 'American leadership is both good for America and good
for the world'. It had members in key positions in the administration of President George W. Bush,
affecting the development of US military and foreign policies at the time of the Iraq War. The
project was offi cially ended in 2006 - more details at the website http://www.newamericancentury.