The Ethical Use of Outer Space - Ethical Engineering for International Development and Environmental Sustainability - page 122

include orbital paths, access to outer space, the planets and other celestial bodies,
etc. These environmental resources are nationally non-appropriable and so free
access to, free use of and freedom of action within them are required. As outer space
is essentially deregulated, it is subject to a 'tragedy of the commons'.
This is a dilemma arising from a number of individuals, acting independently
and rationally in their own self-interest, ultimately depleting a shared limited
resource - even when it is clear that it is not in anyone's long-term interest for this
to happen. 16
In his original article on tragedy of the commons, Garret Hardin pointed out that
an article by Wiesner and York ( 1964 ) on the future of nuclear war concluded the
following:
Both sides in the arms race are …confronted by the dilemma of steadily increasing military
power and steadily decreasing national security. It is our considered professional judgment
that this dilemma has no technical solution . If the great powers continue to look for solu-
tions in the area of science and technology only, the result will be to worsen the situation.

This is also the situation with the use of outer space - although individual states
cannot own outer space, in order to avoid a tragedy, they will collectively need to
agree to cooperate in its use. A generally acceptable ethical code must therefore be
developed that can be reliably followed and which will benefi t all without polluting
the near-Earth environment, restricting access to deep space or employing space as
a means of domination.

6 The Ethical Use of Outer Space

Sections 4.3 , 4.4 and 4.5 have detailed a number of problems arising from the
increased use of space for scientifi c, civil or military purposes. The increasing mili-
tary activity in space (perhaps leading to the stationing of weapons there), the vul-
nerability of key military components and the likelihood of international incidents
through natural accidents or technical failures are of some concern. In addition, the
increasing dangers due to space debris and the lack of regulation are strong indica-
tions that there is a need for some internationally agreed constraints to ensure the
sustainable use of outer space. As the number of space-faring nations increases, the
stakes get higher and it becomes more diffi cult to manage political and military
tensions.
In addition, the enormous costs involved with space activities raise questions
regarding the setting of priorities - there is an urgent need for funds to save lives
down here on Earth, should we continue to spend limited resources on space opera-
tions when there is so much human suffering that could be eased with the same

16 This dilemma was fi rst described in an infl uential article titled 'The Tragedy of the Commons',
written by Garrett Hardin and fi rst published in the journal Science, Vol. 162, No. 3859, Dec. 13,