Environmental Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
operations of any kind from here, but Norwegian journalist Bård Wormdal ( 2013 )
has discovered that SvalSat downloads images of the Earth that are used for intelli-
gence and military activities. During the Libyan war, Landsat images were sold by
the Italian company e-GEOS to the Italian Armed Forces; satellite images were sold
to the US Armed Forces during the War in Afghanistan, and images of North Korean
installations have been sold to the United States. These were downloaded from dif-
ferent satellites, all using SvalSat as a ground station.
The problem this highlights is that the satellites are controlled by one group
(civilian or military), while another is responsible for running the downlink opera-
tions and yet another runs the equipment that receives and distributes the data. The
last two are often civilian groups whose services act as conduits for the images and
data transmitted from satellites. They may have no idea what the data is that they are
transferring and the end user can be (and often is) the military. A similar case exists
at the rocket launch and testing facility Esrange in Sweden used by the scientifi c
community to launch upper atmosphere probes but it also acts as a downlink facility
for satellite data that is often for military use - although the personnel involved may
not be aware of this because it is not them but their customers, who deal with the
data, who know who the fi nal users will be.
The military uses of space are no longer restricted to the superpowers, and earthly
rivalries are being played out in space via military or dual-use space systems -
Taiwan and China, Japan and North Korea, Pakistan and India and Israel and Iran
have mutual concerns about each other's space activities (West 2007 ).
4
Environmental Effects of Space Use
Firing rockets into space will affect not only the atmosphere but also the ground and
outer space environments and, as the use of space is increasing dramatically, any
problems caused could become serious. The major detrimental effects identifi ed so
far are pollution from the rocket propellant; damage to the upper atmosphere as
rockets pass through and space debris from various space activities. It is worth look-
ing at these effects a little more closely.
4.1
Rocket Fuel Pollution
Rockets can use solid or liquid fuels or a hybrid mixture. Up until the last century,
all rockets used a solid or powdered propellant, but then liquid and hybrid fuels
were developed that offered more effi cient and controllable alternatives.
Solid-fuel rockets can be kept for long periods with minimum maintenance and
launched at short notice and are therefore frequently used in missiles. Liquid rock-
ets may use one, two or even three types of propellant, often held in liquid form at
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