Environmental Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
systems - which have already been demonstrated as effective antisatellite weapons
(Webb
2009
).
Space power has therefore been developed to the extent that it has now become
part of daily military operations and provides technologies for intelligence sharing
and communications across continents, enabling (in theory) all branches of the mili-
tary to operate together with precision. In the early years, the three major branches
of the US armed services (army, navy and air force) all developed their own space
projects, but in 1985 the Department of Defense created the US Space Command
(USSPACECOM) at Peterson Air Force Base in Colorado Springs. It was merged
with US Strategic Command (USSTRATCOM) at Offutt Air Force Base in 2002.
Military space operations now come under Air Force Space Command (AFSPC),
and the US Air Force Warfare Center (USAFWC) facilitates the development and
integration of operational and tactical warfi ghting capabilities for all Air and Space
Component Commanders. The USAFWC also includes the 50th Space Wing, which
has the responsibility of tracking and maintaining the command and control, warn-
ing, navigational and communications satellites for AFSPC and also manages the
Global Positioning System and has the motto 'Master of Space'.
8
The US military is regularly realigning to keep in touch with global and techno-
logical developments and to maintain its dominance in space.
3.3.2
Other Military Space Developments
Russia has a number of military satellite programmes for early warning, imaging,
intelligence, communications and navigation. A dual-use (i.e. commercial and mili-
tary) Global National Satellite System (GLONASS) which is similar to GPS was
completed in 1995. According to Poroskov and Novostey (
2003
), Russian armed
forces were due to be outfi tted with GLONASS receivers by 2005, but the system
fell into disrepair following the collapse of the Russian economy. During the 2000s,
President Putin made the restoration of the system a top government priority and
funding was substantially increased. In 2010 it was allocated 3.7 billion roubles,
consuming a third of the budget of the Russian Federal Space Agency, and achieved
100% coverage of Russia's territory. The full orbital constellation of 24 satellites
was restored in 2012, enabling full global coverage (Hill
2013
).
China has also launched a number of satellites for military communications and
navigation. It also maintains three satellites for tactical reconnaissance and surveil-
lance and is developing its own GPS system of satellites - the BeiDou Navigation
Satellite System (BDS - also known as COMPASS). According to the Chinese
National Space Administration, the system should have a full coverage of China by
2012 and will cover neighbouring regions by 2020.
The European Union has developed a range of military space systems. France,
Germany, Italy, Spain, Belgium and Greece jointly use the Helios-1 military optical
observation satellite system, and France, Germany and Spain have developed a
8
As shown here:
http://www.schriever.af.mil/library/factsheets/factsheet.asp?fsID=3909
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