Environmental Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
of behavior over time. In many applied contexts, limited resources compel the
researcher to apply ethnographic techniques in a contract deadline time frame
rather than to conduct a full-blown ethnography.
The most important element of fieldwork is being there—to observe, to
askseeminglystupidbutinsightfulquestions,andtowritedownwhatisseen
and heard. Life histories of individuals can be particularly illuminating. One
articulate individual may provide a wealth of valuable information. The
ethnographer must then cross-check, compare, and triangulate this informa-
tion before it becomes a foundation on which to build a knowledge base.
Proper organization from the beginning of the effort can facilitate this
process, whether the researcher uses index cards, cardboard boxes, and lists
or more high-tech databases, electronic spreadsheets, word processing soft-
ware, and plenty of flexible storage space for data. Keeping the data orga-
nized and handy allows the ethnographer to test minihypotheses throughout
the investigation. In addition, organized, accessible data are enormously
valuable when the ethnographer leaves the field and tries to put the entire
puzzle together.Work conducted in the researcher's native village or country
allows a second or third round of visits to check on missing information but,
in most cases, it is impossible to go back. Either the culture is too far away
or the program no longer exists—as is often the case with demonstration
programs in evaluation research.
The decision to leave the field is based on several criteria. Often, research
funding will allow only a limited amount of time in the field, thus establishing
the time schedule of the research design. In other cases, either the sponsor
needs information at a predetermined date or the researcher has personal and
professionaldeadlinestomeet.Ofcourse,thebestreasontoleavethefieldisthe
belief that enough data have been gathered to describe the culture or problem
convincingly and to say something significant about it. Different researchers
requiredifferentlevelsofconfidenceaboutspecificresearchfindings.Noone
can be completely sure about the validity of research conclusions, but the
ethnographer needs to gather sufficient and sufficiently accurate data to feel
confident about research findings and to convince others of their accuracy.
Small errors in the description of a building that houses the program under
study are tolerable; basing the conceptual argument on idiosyncratic inter-
views is not. Finally, the law of diminishing returns can determine that it is
timefor theethnographertoleavethefield.Whenthesame specificpatternof
behavior emerges over and over again, the fieldworker should move on to a
new topic for observation and detailed exploration. Similarly, when the gen-
eral picture reaffirms itself over and over again, it is probably time to wrap
things up and return home.
