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useful in establishing a baseline to begin observations of change over time.
Theseapproaches,however,aregenerallyregardedasstatic—notsufficientfor
the study of sociocultural change.
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OnedynamictheorythatguidedthestudyoftheCIPfordropoutswasinno-
vation theory (Barnett, 1953).The experimental program for dropouts was the
innovation in question. This theory helped me pigeonhole observations about
the innovative program, ranging from its introduction through the intricate
maze to its acceptance, rejection, modification, or all three.Acculturation and
diffusion approaches were also useful in analyzing how the program model
was disseminated to different parts of the country (for additional examples of
acculturation approaches in ethnographic research, see G. Spindler, 1955;
G. Spindler & Goldschmidt, 1952; L. Spindler, 1962; Tonkinson, 1974).
Whereas static theories provided “snapshots” of various moments throughout
the project, dynamic theories helped identify patterns of significant behaviors
over time (as part of a larger process of change).
Theories need not be elaborate juxtapositions of constructs, assumptions,
propositions, and generalizations; they can be midlevel or personal theories
abouthowtheworldorsomesmallpartofitworks.Typically,ethnographersdo
notmakeagrandtheoryexplicitbecausetheydonotautomaticallysubscribeto
one.Agrandtheorycanbeinstructive,butmanyethnographersfinditunwieldy
and unresponsive to day-to-day research needs. Usually, ethnographers use the-
oretical models indirectly linked to grand theories to guide their work. Grand
theories, models, and personal theories all fall into either ideational or material-
ist camps—a basic dichotomy that is useful in analyzing another researcher's
work and in pursuing one's own. Obviously, approaches overlap in the field, but
mostresearchersbeginbyselectingatheoryormodelthatisprimarilyideational
or materialist in nature before they even begin to conceptualize the problem.
Theselectionofatheoryshoulddependonitsappropriateness,easeofuse,
and explanatory power. Ideological bases for theory often blind rather than
guide researchers making their way through the maze of data in the field.
When theory is no longer a guide, it is no longer useful; when the data do not
fit the theory, it is time to look for a new theory (for more detailed discussions
of theory in ethnographic research, see Bee, 1974; Dorr-Bremme, 1985;
Fetterman,1986b;Harris,1968;Kaplan&Manners,1972;Pitman&Dobbert,
1986; Simon, 1986; and Studstill, 1986).
RESEARCH DESIGN: FIELDWORK
The research design, according to Pelto (1970), “involves combining the
essential elements of investigation into an effective problem-solving
