Environmental Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
physicians, and politicians will define the same problem in radically different
ways. Similarly, different types of ethnographers will define problems differently
and approach them in very different ways. Throughout, this topic has abstracted
basic features of ethnography common to most ethnographic approaches, noting
exceptions as necessary. Here, the focus is on how the adoption of a specific ethno-
graphic role—whether academic (basic) or applied—influences every stage of the
research project, from defining the problem to reporting findings.
ACADEMIC AND APPLIED ETHNOGRAPHY
Academic ethnography typically takes place within the academy to enlighten
students and colleagues and to build a knowledge base about a culture or
theory. Academic or basic research is the dominant mode of investigation.
Applied research, however, also occurs within this domain.
Applied research usually aims at social change and often at influencing
institutional policy. Most applied ethnographic work—administrative, action,
and advocate ethnography—takes place in schools, hospitals, government
agencies, and other organizational settings outside of academe (Spradley &
McCurdy, 1989). Each approach has an important role to play in the develop-
ment of knowledge and action. Ethnographers select the approach that best
suits them personally and professionally, and each approach is ethical and pro-
ductive in the appropriate setting. Each approach, however, can also pose eth-
ical dilemmas and constraints. Ethnographic approaches—like technology—
are better or worse, ethical or unethical, according to their application.
Academic Ethnographers
A variety of pressures, from peer to sponsor pressures, shape academic
ethnographers. Academic ethnographers feel the pressure to “fit in” just as
does every other professional. The pressures of job performance are very
real for academics, including the need for job security (tenure) and the need
to earn annual increases in salary and rank in the field. The criteria used in
evaluating the success of academic ethnographers, however, differ from
those used to evaluate the performance of applied ethnographers. Academic
evaluation relies heavily on the number and quality of grants, papers, articles
and books, committee contributions, accolades, and teaching. These pres-
sures and needs influence what people study—specifically, how they define
the problem and how they tackle it. The dean, chair, and other senior
scholars in the field shape a scholar's perception of a problem. A researcher's
