Environmental Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
overshadowed by subsequent events. Too long a delay sacrifices the rich
immediacy of concurrent notes. (See Emerson, Fretz, & Shaw, 1995, for a
detailed discussion about field notes.)
Shorthand, Symbols, and Mnemonics
Ethnographers use numerous techniques to improve their accuracy in
recording events in the field. For example, they learn a highly personalized
shorthand for recording interviews. Short phrases or key words represent an
event, an image, or parts of a conversation. Standard abbreviations and sym-
bols are common aids in note taking:
, +, $, and so on. Question marks
and exclamation points are useful notations, reminding the ethnographer of a
finding or another unanswered question. These devices enable the ethnogra-
pher to take extensive notes during the day, capturing both depth and breadth.
Ideally, the translation of these notes takes place immediately after the inter-
view or observation while the memory is sharp. Routine end-of-day transla-
tion, however, is more usual and more practical in many cases. These
abbreviations and symbols are written snapshots or mnemonic devices. They
trigger the memory, carrying a rush of images to the brain and enabling the
ethnographer to reconstruct entire episodes.
♀
,
♂
Reconstruction
Note taking is inappropriate in some situations—for example, during funer-
als,fights,andcertainreligiousfestivals.Fieldnotesarestillimportant,buttak-
ing them is more difficult. In this case, a complete reconstruction is necessary.
In his study of tramps, Spradley (1970) ran to the lavatory after almost every
interviewwithdrunkstotranscribeevents.Manyofhisintervieweesthoughtthat
he had a bladder problem. Powdermaker (1966) sat in her car for hours writing
up sensitive conversations. Recalling long passages of conversation accurately
requires practice. Like bards who memorized thousands of lines of song, how-
ever, ethnographers can accurately recall vast amounts of data with training and
experience. Unlike the bards, however, the ethnographer must write down this
information as quickly as possible before absorbing new material.
FIELD NOTE ORGANIZATION
Keeping field notes organized and cross-referenced can facilitate formal
stages of analysis, from preliminary hypothesis testing in the field to the final
writing.Notescanbeorganizedbytopicinaloose-leaffolderaseasilyasthey
