Environmental Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
The computer model Holos has been developed by Agriculture and AgriFood Canada.
It is used to estimate the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of carbon dioxide, nitrous
oxide, and methane emissions. The emissions can originate from enteric fermentation and
manure management, cropping systems and energy use. Carbon storage and loss from
lineal tree plantings and changes in land use and management can also be estimated so
that the user on the farm can identify ways to reduce farm emissions. The Holos software
is continually being updated with new data and improved features. Holos 2.0, released in
March 2013, includes updated Canadian data based on new beef and dairy research. Other
features are more detailed user inputs on monthly herd size adjustments and estimates of
production.
6.6.3 Indicators of Agroecosystem Sustainability
Although crop yields are a measure of sustainability, they do not provide any indication of
the impact on the ecosystem and the geoenvironment or land environment in particular.
Monitoring of ecosystem damage must be determined, particularly to differentiate natural
changes with that due to human activity. GIS, remote sensing, and landscape ecology are
new measuring approaches to indicate land-use changes. Indicator organisms can be mon-
itored for changes in the ecosystem. Various organizations such as the Organization for
Economic Co-operation and Development, FAO, the World Bank, and the Commission of
Sustainable Development have published various indicators for agriculture related to the
economic, social, environmental processes, farming practices, and environmental impacts.
For example, the UK Sustainable Development Strategy articulated by the U.K. Local
Government Management Board and Touche Ross Management Consultants (1994) pro-
vides a list of indicators to determine if development is improving in sustainability. The
indicators are grouped in 21 families. Those related to agriculture are shown in Table 6.5.
Soil quality is included as it is deemed vital for food production and an ecosystem for vital
organisms. Concentrations of organic matter, acidity, nutrient concentration (P and K), and
heavy metals are the parameters included. This varies somewhat from the indicators in
Canada that were initially developed by McRae et al. (2000) and are now modiied and
expanded to include new indicators that are shown in Table 6.6 (Eilers et al., 2010). The data
show some of the environmental factors impacting agriculture and how they change over
time. Some improvements such as soil quality are noted over time but others such as water
quality are of concern due to intensiication of cropping and livestock production.
Other groups such as Sustainable Measures (West Hartford, California) have developed
a searchable database for evaluating sustainability in various sectors including agricul-
ture. Some of the indicators for soil include soil erosion per acre of cropland, average soil
erosion, area affected by soil erosion and SOM. Surface water indicators included phos-
phorus concentration and BOD in county streams. Numerous other indicators are also
included in environmental parameters.
Pesticide indicators have also been developed by the OECD (2002). Pesticide use and
pesticide risks are the two indicators. Most countries have decreased the use of pesticides.
Reduction in risks to human health and the environment can be achieved by reducing
particular pesticides. For water use, the three indicators developed include (1) intensity of
water use, (2) water volume consumed, and (3) economic value of water use. Water use is
very high for many OECD countries. Technical and economic eficiency information are
dificult to obtain, as well as information on water stress caused by diversion of water from
rivers for agricultural use. The impacts on the geoenvironment from agricultural practices
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