Agriculture Reference
In-Depth Information
policy environment in many varied fi elds,
including agriculture and natural resource
management.
Under worst-case scenarios, several crops
may require more fungicide spray treatments or
higher application rates, thus increasing costs for
farmers, prices for consumers, and the likelihood
of the development of fungicide resistance
(Juroszek and von Tiedemann 2011 ). Some agri-
cultural systems may be more fl exible than others
in the adoption of new cultivars and cultural prac-
tices to cope with the increased risk of certain
diseases. Annual crops will have an advantage
over perennials, as they provide more fl exibility
when it comes to adopting new cultivars and cul-
tural practices. Potential adaptation strategies
must be accompanied by cost-benefi t analyses.
Evaluating the effi cacy of current physical,
chemical, and biological control methods under
changing climatic conditions and research con-
cerning new tools and strategies (including plant
breeding) for coping with the predicted changes
will be of great strategic importance.
Fungicides may continue to serve as common
disease suppression agents, although alternative
measures, such as cultural methods and biologi-
cal control, should be developed.
The persistence of crop protection chemicals
in the phyllosphere is highly dependent on
weather conditions. Changes in duration, inten-
sity, and frequency of precipitation events will
affect the effi cacy of chemical pesticides and how
quickly the active molecules are washed away.
Temperature can directly infl uence the degrada-
tion of chemicals and alter plant physiology and
morphology, indirectly affecting the penetration,
translocation, persistence, and modes of action of
many systemic fungicides (Coakley et al. 1999 ).
Plant diseases are a major problem not only for
food production but also for the quality and safety
of important food stuffs. In Europe, mycotoxins
and pesticide residues are among the top food
safety concerns associated with a changing cli-
mate. For example, the concentration of myco-
toxin produced by Fusarium head blight in grain
generally increases with the number of rainy days
and days with high RH but decreases with low
and high temperatures. Changes in both tempera-
ture conditions and atmospheric composition may
infl uence the severity of outbreaks of Fusarium
head blight and the production of mycotoxins.
The most signifi cant effects of mycotoxin pres-
ence generally occur during the production phase,
but the entire wheat value chain can be affected
(Chakraborty and Newton 2011 ). Shifts in any of
the components of the disease triangle can dra-
matically affect the magnitude of disease expres-
sion in a given pathosystem. Therefore, it is not at
all surprising that disease patterns have already
changed and will continue to change in response
to the effects of climatic changes on pathogens
and hosts. The ultimate solution for crop adjust-
ment to climate change is breeding for desired
characteristics associated with future needs.
Breeding programs for crop plants and forest trees
can promote genetic diversity, disease resistance,
and tolerance of environmental stresses. These
breeding goals should, of course, be coupled with
traditional breeding goals, such as yield, quality,
and proper shelf-life.
Indigenous microbial communities play an
important role in maintaining plant health. There
is a need to promote these benefi cial communi-
ties. Recent technological advances, such as
metagenomic analyses, will increase our under-
standing of microbial dynamics in soil and other
environments and further advance the establish-
ment of plant-pathogen suppressive microbial
populations. One adaptation measure that can be
imagined is the introduction of benefi cial micro-
organisms (biocontrol agents) to plant surfaces,
so that this niche can be occupied in a way that
tilts the plant-microorganism interaction in a
healthy direction. Among the benefi cial microor-
ganisms that have been examined, there are some
that have been found to persist in stressful micro-
climates. The selection of such microorganisms
and the development of formulations for agricul-
tural use may help growers cope with both abi-
otic and biotic plant stresses.
It is not advisable to depend on one “high
input variety” or one breed of crop variety.
Varieties should be mixed and changed. A broad
genetic variability serves as a foundation for
robust crops. In addition, it seems more recent
traditional breeding has not selected for CO 2
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