The Range of Environmental Concerns - Mining and the Environment: From Ore to Metal - page 554

public health and improved public infrastructure. In a wider sense, of course, mining
provides metals, industrial minerals or fuels required to support growth of human civi-
lization. In the i rst instance, however, developing countries often seek to exploit mineral
resources as a means of ensuring much needed state revenues. According to some, mineral
wealth is part of a nation's natural capital and the more capital a nation possesses the richer
it becomes (Davis and Tilton 2003). Papua New Guinea often serves as a case in point, as
it receives almost two-thirds of its export earnings from mineral resources (GoPNG 2002).
Another example is Botswana, in which diamond mining accounts for approximately
one-third of GDP and three-quarters of export earnings.
Mineral exports can provide a signii cant share of a country's exports, but history demon-
strates that mineral development does not always boost a country's economic growth (Sideri
and Johns 1990; Auty 1990; Ross 2001; Gelb et al. 1988). While the reasons for lack of eco-
nomic growth in some oil- and mineral dependent states are not entirely conclusive (Ross
1999), low levels of employment in the sector, use of mostly imported technology, high mar-
ket volatility, competition with agricultural sectors and institutional corruption and misman-
agement may be contributing factors (Sideri and Johns 1990; Gelb et al. 1988; Auty 1990).
Economic benei ts are seldom shared equitably. While mining often provides employ-
ment in otherwise economically marginal areas jobs are limited in duration. Communities
that come to depend on mining to sustain their economies are especially vulnerable to neg-
ative social impacts when the mine closes. Mining tends to raise wage levels, potentially
leading to the displacement of some community residents and existing businesses, and ele-
vated expectations (Kuyek and Coumans 2003) ( Case 13.12 ).

Economic benefi ts are seldom
shared equitably.

13.8 SURFACE MINING VERSUS UNDERGROUND MINING

Environmental and social impacts associated with surface and underground mining are sim-
ilar in nature, but often different in magnitude. Compared to surface mining, underground
mining requires relatively small openings and limited excavation. Underground mines
also produce relatively little waste rock. Tailings are often used as backi ll materials elimi-
nating the need for large on-land tailings storage areas. Accordingly, two of the main
sources of environmental impacts from mining (changes in landform and mine wastes) are
greatly reduced. Since underground mines are generally much smaller in terms of pro-
duction than surface mines, the l eet of mining equipment, and ancillary mining opera-
tions are also of smaller scale. Loosely speaking, this also leads to smaller environmental
impacts. On the other hand, underground mining is invariably more labour intensive, so
that there may be more employment opportunities than for a surface mine of similar pro-
duction, but this may not benei t local communities as underground mining requires more
highly skilled workers. Underground mines may also require more extensive mine dewa-
tering, with the potential for more severe impacts related to water management.
Underground mining features two unique environmental features: the necessity to provide
air to the workforce and the possibility of land subsidence. The mine ventilation system, while
providing essential life support for miners, has relatively minor environmental impacts -
noise due to the operation of ventilation fans and dust emissions from ventilation shafts.
Land subsidence is frequently observed at underground mines that are relatively close to the
surface. Overburden collapses into the voids created by underground mining, resulting in
uneven land subsidence at the surface, surface cracks, cracks in buildings, or at the extreme,
in large sink holes. In some cases holes and cracks formed by subsidence pose safety hazards.
As mentioned, higher labour skills are required in underground mining meaning
that without a signii cant training programme, fewer employment opportunities may be

Environmental and social impacts
associated with surface and
underground mining are similar
in nature, but often different in
magnitude.