Minerals, Wealth and Progress - Mining and the Environment: From Ore to Metal - page 12

fuels) and some may produce air-borne emissions that may contribute to global environ-
mental challenges such as climate change, air pollution, and acidification. Environmental
challenges of the use phase are determined mainly by the final product in which the min-
erals are embodied, and generally have little to do with the nature of the mineral itself.
The uneven distribution of mineral production and consumption raises another concern:
the high and increasing consumption of scarce resources and resulting pollution, particu-
larly in the most industrialized countries, is potentially at the expense of the rest of the
world, and of generations to come.
A full study of the immediate and long-term impacts of the mineral cycle would cover
many volumes. This topic, however, focuses primarily on assessing environmental impacts
that are related to mineral exploration, mine site development, extraction mining, and
primary mineral processing - mostly in the form of milling, washing, grading, and con-
centrating. As noted above, these activities have increasingly shifted from the industrial-
ized world to developing countries. Many mining operations also integrate the subsequent
extraction of valuable metals, commonly referred to as mineral processing. This is often
the case in gold mining, where the shipped product is commonly gold, not concentrate.
Limited attention is given to discussing mineral processing and related environmental
impacts, with references provided for those who desire further reading on related topics.

The uneven distribution
of mineral production and
consumption raises another
concern.

1.3 ORE - A NATURAL RESOURCE BLESSING?

Mines operate in a complex web of economic, environmental and social forces and are there-
fore inherently subject to political realities. They necessarily function within the adminis-
trative and legal infrastructure of the host country, and are also confronted with local and
regional pressures from the communities most directly impacted by mining operations.
A brief discussion of these political, economic, and environmental dimensions follows.

The Political Dimension of Mining

Developing country political environments vary widely, but there are two characteristics
common to most, if not all: the first is some degree of international economic dependency.
The dependency of countries that own mineral resources on international mining compa-
nies or, more accurately, their respective home countries as metal consumers, is an impor-
tant reality of the metal market, with potential consequences for trade and diplomatic
relations. The second characteristic is a two level, or 'dual' economic and social structure.
That is, one portion of the economy resembles that of a developed country, with access to
a modern transportation and communications infrastructure, and participation in a cash
based, consumer oriented culture. Generally the middle and upper classes in such a soci-
ety represent a relatively small portion of the total population. The second level is a much
larger percentage that remains embedded in a more traditional agricultural society, with
limited access to the goods and services of the modern sector. Good examples are India,
China, and Indonesia, but most developing countries display some characteristics of this
duality. The existing political and economic distortions of dual economies may be rein-
forced by large mining projects, which appear to benefit the already rich at the expense of
the poor. This can lead to project focused social disruption, which can affect implemen-
tation. Exploitation of mineral wealth can also be the basis for broadly based economic
development, as in Botswana and Chile, although this is atypical (World Bank 2002 a,b).

The existing political and
economic distortions of dual
economies may be reinforced
by large mining projects, which
appear to benefi t the already
rich at the expense of the poor.