Our Environment - Mining and the Environment: From Ore to Metal - page 320

Applying Conservation Values

Subjective criteria to judge the state and value of the environment, common in nature
conservation, are more subtle. In an assessment of criteria used in geological conserva-
tion, Erikstad (1991) discriminates between primary and secondary criteria, recognizing
'naturalness, diversity, rarity, and function' ('part of a system') as primary value criteria, as
they are more connected to the intrinsic properties of ecosystems. TemaNord (2005) sug-
gests including 'vulnerability' as a primary criterion, as a means for securing cost-effective-
ness in environmental management. Secondary criteria are more connected to how people
experience the site from a scientific, educational, or recreational point of view. Secondary
criteria, such as importance to research, education, recreation, and intrinsic value, are
relevant, especially in defining objectives and priorities in conservation. In the fol-
lowing we will discuss the primary criteria in more detail, drawing on the description
in TemaNord (2005).

Naturalness
The concept of naturalness is often used in a sense that implies freedom from human
influence (Margules and Usher 1981). In the traditional nature protection movement in
western civilization, and in the rationale of some anti-mining activists this seems to be one
of the most important aspects: the steadily increasing use of land for economic purposes
triggered the need for conserving pristine areas from such activities. The dominating
underlying reasons for using the criterion probably originated from aesthetic, ethical, and
recreational considerations. A more fundamental scientific rationale lies in the need for
maintaining intact ecosystems for comparison with areas being more influenced by human
activity. The view point in developing countries, of course, often differs. Developing coun-
tries understandably resent influences seeking to protect their environment at the expense
of their own economic development, to offset the past destruction of nature in the western
world.
The rationale behind naturalness as a value criterion is that most of us appreciate the
experience of ecosystems unaffected by humans more than artificial ones. As truly natural
areas are rare, they may be valued for this reason. However, totally unmodified nature is a
rare condition, and it is more useful to regard naturalness as a continuous variable, rang-
ing from completely natural (100% natural) to completely artificial (0% natural).
The naturalness criterion can also be applied to species. It is generally considered that
introduced species have limited conservation value, compared to native or endemic spe-
cies. Native species may be defined as species occurring naturally within a region, contrary
to alien species which may be defined as species occurring outside their known natural
range as a result of intentional or accidental dispersal by human activities (UNEP 1995).
Of note is that many species now regarded as native have been introduced by humans in
historic times, and the immigration time is often unknown. Thus, some subjective judge-
ment is unavoidable in the application of the IUCN red list criteria.
The naturalness criterion can also be applied to humans. Indigenous (or aboriginal)
Peoples are those people regarded as the original inhabitants of an area. For example the
Indians of the American continents are Indigenous Peoples in those lands, the Balinese
are indigenous to the island of Bali, and Australian Aborigines are the Indigenous Peoples
of Australia. The term Indigenous Peoples can be used for all original people of a host
region, but Indigenous Peoples in different parts of the host region have individual tribal
and area names. The term Asmat is such a name in Papua, arguably the best known local
tribe outside of Papua, but it is not applicable to all Papuan Indigenous Peoples. On the

Developing countries
understandably resent
infl uences seeking to protect
their environment at the
expense of their own economic
development, to offset the past
destruction of nature in the
western world.

As truly natural areas are rare,
they may be valued for this
reason.

Many species now regarded as
native have been introduced by
humans in historic times.