Our Environment - Mining and the Environment: From Ore to Metal - page 313

Dysfunctions of bureaucracies
can include 'red tape' and lack
of communication between
individual units (such as
between ministries, or between
units within one ministry),
dysfunctions all too familiar to
mining companies operating in
developing countries.

them reach their goals: to grow, and to endure. These five features are (1) clear levels,
with assignments flowing downward and accountability flowing upward; (2) a division
of labour; (3) written rules; (4) written communications with records; and (5) impartiality.
Although bureaucracies are the most efficient forms of social organization, they can also
be dysfunctional. Dysfunctions of bureaucracies can include 'red tape' and lack of com-
munication between individual units (such as between ministries, or between units within
one ministry), dysfunctions all too familiar to mining companies operating in developing
countries ( Case 7.7 ).
At the community level, social structures complement formal systems. The major
components of social structure include culture, social class, social status, roles, groups,
and social institutions. Social structure guides peoples' behaviours. A person's location in
the social structure (her social class and social status, the roles he plays, and the culture,
groups, and social institutions to which she belongs) underlies the person's perceptions,
attitudes, and behaviours. People develop these perceptions, attitudes, and behaviours
from their place in the social structure, and they act accordingly. Social structure is not
static. It responds to changes in culture, technology, economic conditions, group relation-
ships, and societal needs and priorities. Structural changes can, sometimes, fundamentally
and permanently alter the way a society organizes itself.

Race and Ethnicity

The Earth offers a fascinating array of human characteristics. Race refers to the inher-
ited physical characteristics that distinguish one group from another. These distinguishing
characteristics include a variety of complexions, colours, and shapes. Although there have
been significant strides in the understanding of race and racial equality, two myths of race
are still common. One is the perception that some races are superior to others, and the
other is that 'pure' races exist.
While race refers to biological characteristics that distinguish one group of peo-
ple from another, ethnicity refers to cultural characteristics that distinguish one group
of people from another. Derived from the Greek word 'ethnos', meaning 'people' or
'nation', ethnicity may centre on nation of origin, distinctive foods, dress, language,
music, religion, or family names and relationships. It is common for people to confuse
the terms race and ethnic group. Along with race and ethnicity, the concept of minority
group is often misunderstood. Sociologically, a minority group is a group of people who

Sociologically, a minority group
is a group of people who are
singled out for unequal treatment
and who regard themselves
as objects of collective
discrimination.

CASE 7.7
The Many Facets of Environmental Concern

Australian based Herald Resources Ltd. obtained govern-
ment approval at provincial level for its mine development
in Sumatra, Indonesia in 2005. The company raised funds
for mine development, commissioned detailed engineering
work, and ordered mining equipment. Twelve months later
the Department of Forestry at the Central Government
level questioned the validity of the local approval,

requesting Herald Resources Ltd. to redo the environmental
permitting at the central level. Eventually the dispute was
resolved with support from the Ministry of Environment
upholding the legitimacy of the original approval. However,
the Department of Forestry continued to refuse issuing a
forestry permit needed for mine development. The associ-
ated fi nancial loss to the company caused by the delay in

mine development was substantial, as was the emotional
stress on those involved. As at the end of 2007, the com-
pany still has to receive the offi cial forest permit allowing
the mine to go ahead. Coincidentally, in early 2008 an
Indonesian-owned resource company with well-established
government relationships at the highest level eventually
stepped forward to take over the ore deposit.