The Recursive Knowledge Development Model for Virtual Environments - Teaching through Multi-User Virtual Environments - page 17

the shift from the use of the term 'online learning'
to the notion of 'virtual learning environments',
a sophistication of process and decidedly more
responsive organization of resource may be
considered.
A brief and selected discussion of relevant
theories and practices will be presented to guide
the discussion of the development of the Recur-
sive Knowledge Development Model for Virtual
Environments. While no educational theory is
rejected, each theory presented is considered for
its current influence on educational practice and its
relevance to virtual environments. Each theory has
been summarized and a graphical representation
of this summary has been developed to facilitate
discussion of the agreement among theories for
support of the derived Recursive Knowledge
Development Model. The author must note that
each existing theory is considerably more complex
than presented here and suggests that interested
parties access the references given for a broader
understanding of each theory.

ism assumes a recursive learning process. While
at first glance, these approaches seem opposed,
are they really? Could they possibly complement
each other-especially in a virtual environment?

Behaviorism

Behaviorism reflects a modern view of knowl-
edge that assumes a learner is essentially passive,
responding to environmental stimuli. The learner
is assumed to start with a clean slate (i.e. tabula
rasa ) and learner behavior is shaped through
positive reinforcement or negative reinforce-
ment. Both positive reinforcement and negative
reinforcement increase the probability that the
antecedent behavior will be repeated. Conversely,
punishment (both positive and negative) decreases
the probability that the antecedent behavior will
be repeated. Positive punishment indicates the
application of a stimulus; Negative punishment
indicates the withholding of a stimulus. A change
in behavior is considered learning according to
behavioral theories. Much of the underlying work
that supports this theory was done with animals
and then generalized to humans. Drill and Practice
and Programmed Instruction are instructional
strategies that embody the theory of behaviorism.

COgNITIVe THeORIeS

Two major and somewhat opposing cognitive
approaches to teaching guide current educational
practice, both in classrooms and in virtual learning
environments. The Behaviorist teaching para-
digm may be seen as the modernist approach to
knowledge conveyance, with an assumption that
knowledge has a given structure and it is the task
of the teacher to develop within the learner an
understanding of this structure and an ability to
utilize this knowledge to solve problems. The Con-
structivist teaching paradigm is more postmodern
in its assumption that knowledge is constructed
and therefore the student must develop his or her
own knowledge structure based on personal expe-
rience and through discovery and experimentation
with the information that exists that surrounds
this area of knowledge. Behaviorism assumes a
more linear learning process while constructiv-

Drill and Practice

As an instructional strategy, drill & practice is fa-
miliar to all educators. It promotes the acquisition
of knowledge or skill through repetitive practice.
It refers to small tasks such as the memorization
of spelling or vocabulary words, or the practicing
of arithmetic facts and may also be found in more
sophisticated learning tasks. Drill-and-practice,
like memorization, involves repetition of specific
skills, such as addition and subtraction, or spell-
ing. To be meaningful to learners, the skills built
through drill-and-practice should are often used
to serve as the basis for more meaningful learn-
ing. A significant amount of educational software,