Graphics Programs Reference
In-Depth Information
BACkgROUND: THe CASe
FOR SImULATIONS IN
HeALTHCARe eDUCATION
simultaneously maximizing flexibility and mini-
mizing risk when training novices (Lind, 1961).
Aldrich (2004) defines simulations broadly as
tools that facilitate learning through practice in a
repeatable, focused environment (Aldrich, 2004).
According to Prensky (2001a), the term “simula-
tion” can have various interpretations, including
but not limited to: (i) a synthetic or counterfeit
creation; (ii) the creation of an artificial world that
approximates the real one; (iii) an activity that
represents and/or imitates the reality of a real place
(such as the workplace); and (iv) a mathematical or
algorithmic model, combined with a set of initial
conditions, that allows prediction and visualization
as time unfolds. When designed well, simula-
tions can aid students' retention, understanding,
application, and integration of specific domain
knowledge and concepts, as well as facilitating the
development of generic attributes and skills like
decision-making, creativity, and problem solving.
In terms of the affective domain, simulation can
be used to rouse interest, boost motivation, and
instill values (Randel, Morris, Wetzel & Whitehill,
1992; Ellington, Gordon, & Fowlie, 1998).
In a healthcare education simulation, the main
idea is to create experiences for learners in which
they are actively engaged in attempting to solve
problems by interacting and communicating with
peers, the environment, equipment, and patients
(Miller, 1984). Research attests to the benefit of
clinical simulations to complement from tradi-
tional classroom-based learning (Bruce, Bridges,
& Holcomb, 2003; Engum & Jeffries, 2003; Jef-
fries, 2006). Such simulations can equip learners
with skills that can be directly transferred into the
real clinical setting (Clague et al., 1997; Engum,
Jeffries, & Fisher, 2003). Clinical simulation does
not rely on the random exposure provided by real
clinical fieldwork, but rather allows students to
practice skills in a safe and non-threatening yet
immersive environment (Fanning & Gaba, 2008).
Common clinical simulations employed in con-
temporary education programs include case stud-
ies and role-playing activities, part-task trainers,
Research in healthcare education has found that
professional and personal clinical experience
is an essential aspect in the development of
competent healthcare professionals (Higgs &
Titchen, 2000; Benson, 2004). Fanning and Gaba
(2008) agree that in healthcare education, adult
students learn most effectively through experi-
ence, wherein they develop an understanding by
doing, thinking about, and assimilating lessons
learnt into everyday behaviors. In undergraduate
healthcare programs, students have traditionally
gained on-the-job experience by participating
in clinical field placements. However, evidence
is mounting about the inherent issues and prob-
lems with clinical field placements, such as the
difficulty of embedding such activities into the
learning process at the most opportune time for
the integration and consolidation of theoretical
and practical knowledge, and the fact that students
often receive dissimilar experiences due to varia-
tions in patient acuity and institutional cultures
where the learning is patient-centered rather than
student-centered. These issues, combined with the
current ethical and professional climate, have led
to the suggestion that they may be inappropriate
as an exclusive means of providing experiential
learning opportunities for pre-service healthcare
professionals (Ziv, Small, & Wolpe, 2000; Lee
et al., 2007; Heinrichs, Youngblood, Harter, &
Dev, 2008). This has provided a strong impetus
for educators to explore the use of simulated
activities that can reproduce experience by other
means (Alinier, 2007).
A healthcare worker's ability to solve problems
and make accurate clinical judgments in a timely
manner is crucial to patient safety and wellbeing.
Since the 1960s, healthcare educators have docu-
mented the use of simulation as a teaching and
learning strategy to provide hands-on experience,
with the aim of increasing patient safety, while
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