Environmental Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
practical and expressive education tool in schools, colleges, universities, community
groups, business and the professions (Wackernagel and Yount, 2000). The same type
of analysis can be done for local communities, small businesses, transnational
corporations, cities, city regions and nation-states by both specialists and non-
specialists. It is an organizing, educational and analytical tool. The method's
repeatability enables the development of comparisons, debate and discussion. Finally,
although there is evidence that a smaller ecological footprint does not necessarily
mean a reduced quality, or even lower standard of living, Wackernagel and Yount
suggest that ecological footprinting could be more socially embracing if it were
linked to, or complemented by, measures of human satisfaction or happiness.
Environmental management systems: Life Cycle Assessment
(LCA)
One particular tool commonly applied by businesses, governments, NGOs and
campaign groups is Life Cycle Assessment, whose processes, principles and procedures
have been standardized by the ISO (the International Organization for Standardiza-
tion). The ISO, a global private sector organization, aims to standardize a wide range
of products and services. Its LCA standards include both technical and organizational
aspects with one of the key aims of its 9000 series being to integrate quality aspects
into business practice. The ISO 14000 series includes the 14001 Environmental
Management Systems and the 14040 series relate to LCA, first published in 1997-8
and revised in 2006 and defines LCA as the 'compilation and evaluation of the
inputs, outputs and potential environmental impacts of a product system throughout
its life cycle' (Guinée, 2002: 7). It is a tool with which to analyse the environmental
impact of products at all stages in their life cycle - extraction of resources, produc-
tion of materials, the product itself, the use of the product, its afterlife - where it
may be reused, recycled or disposed. The environmental burden of a product may
encompass many different environmental impacts, including emission of hazardous
substances and different types of land use. The term 'product' may refer to physical
goods as well as services at both operational and strategic levels. In comparative
LCA studies, it is the function provided by these products rather than the products
themselves that are the subject of comparison.
There are four main stages in LCA methodology (Welford, 1998):
•
Inventory
: gathering mainly quantifiable data which may involve extensive
research for some companies who have long supply chains.
•
Impact analysis
: consideration of how this inventory impacts the environment
in each area documented under the inventory.
•
Impact assessment
: the measuring of impacts is usually broken down into three
stages:
-
classification:
e.g. human health, natural resources, etc.;
-
characterization
: aggregation of data and creation of impact profiles;
-
valuation
: the weighting of different impact categories using quantitative
and qualitative data.
•
Improvement
: an appraisal of where and how the product or service can be
further improved.
