Geography Reference
In-Depth Information
running, or swimming. Animals may make use of several operational modes, for
example, many birds fly, walk, and swim; motion mechanics may vary, reflecting
changes both in an individual's internal state and/or external factors.
In terms of human beings, apart from biological motion capability, the degree
and nature of human mobility is also associated with the ability to sense the
environment and the ability to traverse the environment. For example, one can
extend his/her motion ability over the environment by utilising certain transpor-
tation tools, (e.g. planes, ships, cars, bicycles). The improvements in transportation
technology have increased the spatial extent of human movement over time
(Hägerstrand
1970
).
Navigation capacity refers to the ability to orient in space and/or time, selecting
where and/or when to move. Navigation requires an ability to sense and respond to
information (e.g., direct and indirect cues, memory of previous experiences)
regarding the spatiotemporal structure and dynamics of the environment.
Similarly, the skill of orientation in spatial environments is a fundamental
human ability and a prerequisite to wayfinding, the process of purposefully
determining and following a route from origin to destination (Golledge
1999
). The
process of human navigation is composed of three activities: positioning (i.e.
identify location and orientation in the environment), route planning and move-
ment (Sester and Elias
2007
). Human navigational skills are related to knowledge
and appreciation of the environment and its characteristics, and they can be
facilitated be various wayfinding aids, e.g. maps and known landmarks (Golledge
1999
; Sester and Elias
2007
).
External factors refer to all features of the abiotic and biotic environment which
influence movement, for example, weather, habitat type, threat of predators, the
proximity of resources or other organisms. These factors mediate an animal's
ability to move and survive, so it is critically important to understanding the
relationships between movement and the environment (Patterson et al.
2009
).
The impact of the dynamic geography, including other sentient entities, is
equally important to movement of humans since the geographies determine what
choices and movement combinations are available (Hägerstrand
1978
). Clark and
Cadwallader (
1973
) suggest that people's locational stress, which is the stress
experienced by an household at a particular location (e.g. neighbourhood decay,
accessibility issues, environment pollution), may make them decide to move from
one residential location to another (Clark and Cadwallader
1973
).
2.2 Constraints
Hägerstrand (
1970
) believed that movement and activity often are governed by
limitations, which constrain possibilities of movement and can be used to explain
or deduce reasons as to why particular individuals move along one path rather than
others. In this context, it becomes necessary to identify factors which constrain
individual movements. Seven major constraints are discussed:
