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Figure 18-1. Superwide-angle view looking southward
over the Atlantic coast and salt marsh at Moody
Division, Rachel Carson National Wildlife Refuge,
Maine, United States. Note the dense recreational and
residential development along both margins of the
marsh; however, access to the marsh itself is strictly
controlled. Blimp aerial photo by J.S. Aber, S.W. Aber
and V. Valentine.
Figure 18-2. Schematic illustration of key risks for
wetlands.
scientists and experts working in subgroups
from different countries across the world arrived
at a comprehensive documentation of current
trends in ecosystem health. The assessment
identii ed key problem areas that required urgent
attention and offered policy responses and man-
agement strategies for adoption. Wetlands were
one of the focus areas of the Millennium Ecosys-
tem Assessment (Millennium Ecosystem Assess-
ment 2005). Key i ndings of this report endorsed
a focus on integrated ecosystem -scale approaches
to wetland conservation. They also emphasized
addressing the drivers of wetland change while
at the same time encouraging Ramsar-supported
wise-use approaches to management (see also
chapter 12).
institutions. The integration of collective knowl-
edge and collaborative action could make a
difference to the long-term viability of this eco-
system. Some of the risks to wetlands are speci-
i ed below (Fig. 18-2).
Population increase - The world's population is
expected to exceed nine billion people by
2050 from the current total of seven billion
(United Nations Population Fund 2011). It is,
however, in the developing world where the
greatest expansion will take place. By 2050,
more than 80% of the world's population will
reside in developing countries. Agricultural
efi ciencies and advances in related technolo-
gies will be needed to feed expanding popu-
lations. Recent history indicates, however,
that population size is not the sole driver of
environmental change and degradation. If
anything, it was the prosperity and wealth
of industrialized nations and their drive for
economic growth that led to signii cant
regional and global environmental damage
throughout most of the twentieth century.
However, more stringent environmental pro-
tection policies across the developed world
have helped ameliorate some of the past
errors (Fig. 18-3).
18.2 Key risks to wetlands
Despite the global focus on the environment
and the renewed attention to sustainable
development, wetlands face urgent threats and
increasing pressures in the twenty-i rst century.
These threats pose a greater problem across
developing nations where increasing demand
and limited resources heighten the vulnerability
of already stressed ecosystems. They require
immediate attention from scientists, land man-
agers, stakeholders, policy makers, and relevant
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