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drainage ditches were built into the marshes to
permit further settlement and development (see
Fig. 13-6). These ditches are still clearly observed
in a recent near-infrared image of West Creek
within the Parker River basin (Fig. 16-40). With
the decline of agriculture across New England
by the second half of the twentieth century,
some farms and pastures were recolonized
by forests. Today the PIE is just an hour drive
north from Boston, New England's largest city
and, as such, faces all the residential, commer-
cial and industrial development pressures that
accompany its location. Even so, parts of the
region are protected from development by state
and local ordinances as well as the Parker River
National Wildlife Refuge.
PIE encompasses a vast system of beaches,
dunes, mudl ats, marsh complexes, vegetated
platforms, river channels and upland areas, and
has more than 490 species of vascular plants
(Department of Conservation and Recreation
2011). Spartina alternil ora dominates creek
edges, while mixes of S. patens and J. gerardii
dominate high-salt-marsh zones closer to the
coastline. Pools, pannes, algal mats and mudl ats
are found across the high marsh. Brackish and
fresh-water communities including Typha extend
farther inland along the Parker and Ipswich
rivers, where vegetated platforms are more
typical. Greater species mixing is found in the
brackish areas when compared to saline areas
(Pavri and Valentine 2008). The Parker River
NWR is a well-known stopover point for migra-
tory birds along the Atlantic l yway and has
recorded more than 300 bird species, of which
about 60 species breed within the marshes.
Spring and fall migrations bring in large con-
centrations of waterfowl including up to 25,000
ducks and 6000 Canada Geese (Department of
Conservation and Recreation 2011).
Figure 16-40. Near-infrared image (April 2005) of West Creek within the Parker River basin showing extensive
drainage ditches across the salt marsh (see Color Plate 16-40). Data Source: 1 : 5000 digital orthoimagery from
Massachusetts Ofi ce of Geographic Information (MassGIS 2011). Adapted from Pavri and Valentine (2008).
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