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Figure 16-38. The Wells NERR marshes with Spartina patens in the foreground, taller S. alternil ora along creek
edges in the mid-ground, and high-value ocean-front real estate in the background. Photo by Firooza Pavri.
anthropogenic modii cations have dropped salin-
ity levels. Successful control methods include
the removal of tidal restrictions to restore natural
tidal l ushing, or burning and mechanical
removal (Blossey 2003).
16.3.2 Plum Island Ecosystem,
northeastern Massachusetts
Approximately 110 km south of the Wells NERR
is the coastal marsh system of Plum Island
Sound of northeastern Massachusetts (see Fig.
2-2B). The Plum Island Ecosystem (PIE) is the
largest estuarine system within New England
and receives runoff from the combined Parker
and Ipswich watersheds (PIE 2011). It was des-
ignated as part of the National Science Founda-
tion's (NSF) Long Term Ecological Research
(LTER) program in 1998. This designation
enables research institutions to conduct long-
term ecological experiments and set up monitor-
ing sites across the ecosystem.
Land use and development activities have a
long history here. Paleo-Indian artifacts from
10,000 years ago indicate early human settle-
ment of the region (Department of Conservation
and Recreation 2011). Over the past 300-plus
years, the region hosted productive farmland,
pasture for cattle grazing, valuable commercial
i sheries, and other associated activities. In the
1800s and early 1900s, extensive networks of
Figure 16-39. A patch of Phragmites australis
(common reed) over 1.6 m tall along an upland edge in
the Wells NERR marshes, Maine, United States. Photo
by Firooza Pavri.
co-dominant with D. spicata or short form S.
alternil ora . Deeper pools with dependent i sh
communities and forb pannes are commonly
observed across the high marsh. Fairly large
patches of P. australis and T. angustifolia are
found along upland edges (Fig. 16-39). P. aus-
tralis is of particular concern in the Wells Reserve
and elsewhere across the Atlantic coast. It grows
well and out-competes such native species as
Juncus gerardii along upland zones where
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