Landscape management - Ecological Applications: Toward a Sustainable World - page 288

thermal conditions for soaring, and the fi nely structured limestone screes used for
bone breaking and food storage; food abundance is now of secondary signifi cance.
The authors suggest that future reintroductions in the European Alps should
recognize the diverse habitat requirements of adult vultures and be concentrated in
large limestone massifs. It would be misleading to assume that a landscape that
seemed ideal for prospecting juveniles would ensure success of the population as a
whole.

10.5.2 Restoring
farmed habitat -
styled for hares

Sometimes the aim of land managers is to restore the landscape for the benefi t of a
particular species. The European hare Lepus europaeus provides an example. The
hare's fundamental niche (Box 2.1) includes habitats created over the centuries by
human activity. Hares are most common in farmed areas, but populations have
declined where agriculture has become too intensive and the species is now pro-
tected in England and Wales. Vaughan et al. (2003) used a farm postal survey (1050
farmers responded) to investigate relationships between hare abundance and current
land management. Their aim was to establish key features of the two most signifi cant
niche dimensions for hares, namely resource availability (crops e aten by hares) and
habitat availability, and then propose management action to maintain and restore
landscapes benefi cial to the species.
Hares are more common on arable farms, especially on those growing wheat or
beet, and where fallow land is present (areas not currently used for crops). They are
less common on pasture farms, but the abundance of hares increases if 'improved'
grass (ploughed, sown with a grass mixture and fertilized), some arable crops or
woodland are present (Table 10.2). To increase the distribution and abundance of
hares, the recommendations of Vaughan's team include the provision on all farms
of year-round cover (from foxes Vulpes vulpes ), the prov ision on pasture farms of
woodland, improved grass and arable crops, and on arable farms of wheat, beet and
fallow land.

10.5.3 Old is good -
willingness to pay for
forest improvement

A problem facing all conservation managers is the intangible nature of the value of
biodiversity. Even though the populace may be broadly in favor of conservation, the
absence of a publicly accepted 'value' of a management strategy makes its implemen-
tation a diffi cult process, especially where people are asked to vote in a State ballot.
To ci rc umvent t h is information gap, Garber-Yonts et al. (2004) mailed out surveys
to several thousand Oregon taxpayers inviting respondents to assess a number of
management options. Our focus here is on holistic forest restoration to regain a
'natural' balance of different age classes, from young stands to old growth. Those
surveyed were informed about the current status of Oregon forest, and offered one
of three choices, together with the estimated annual tax cost per household for each
choice: status quo (only 5% of trees older than 150 years); management to achieve
33% old growth; or management to achieve 50% old growth forest (highest cost).
Respondents indicated a higher willingness to pay for forest-age management than
for any other option (such as conserving salmon habitat, endangered species protec-
tion or the establishment of biodiversity reserves). The analysis confi rmed that
Oregon people rate forest management particularly highly for wildlife management,
recreation and the provision of clean water. Remarkably, households indicated a
'willingness to pay', on average, US$380 annually to increase the proportion of old
trees from 5% to 35%.