Environmental Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
or 56.8 9 10
-3
oz mi
-1
for additional CO
2
emissions, with no exceptions for
small-volume car manufacturers and no credits or incentives for cars that can run
only on mixtures of fossil and biogenic fuels, or CNG or LPG without absolute
decreasing SFC [
14
].
16.5 Costs in Aviation
Airplane operating costs are a crucial sales argument for the airlines besides safety,
comfort, and
environmental
friendliness. This economic
calculation includes
direct, indirect, and total operating costs.
16.5.1 Development Phases
Modern airliners are designed for a life span of approximately 20 years and 60,000
Flight Cycles, i.e., landings [
15
].
The sequence of development of airplanes can be divided into phases of
research and construction, preparation, and mass production.
These main stages have several smaller phases, e.g., technical preproject to
define concept, building a prototype, carrying out a wind tunnel test, defining the
preconstruction, working out of details of construction and of production docu-
ments, constructing mock ups, system trials, structural test plans, realizing flight
tests for production, customized changes, technical improvements, and further
developments (see Fig.
16.7
).
Airplanes are produced according to their production documents and manufac-
turing processes. Mass production comes after completion of the mock-up phase.
16.5.2 Purchase Price
At first, the purchase price depends on production, i.e., on labor and equipment
costs; see Table
16.2
.
Turboprop engine-driven short distance airplanes are very economic. The range
is very broad, and reaches up to €270 million, i.e., US $307 million. Table
16.3
shows the main technical data and price of modern airliners from the manufacturer
Embraer [
26
].
16.5.3 Operating Costs
The Direct Operation Cost (DOC) is determined by the technical data of the
airplane. DOC can be divided into fuel costs (28.4%), costs of cockpit, and cabin
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