Geoscience Reference
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Starvation and malnutrition encouraged disease, not only in humans but also
in animals. Farms and landholdings were abandoned. Reports of cannibalism
abounded. In wet years, ergot fungus destroyed grain crops. Heat spells further
encouraged mortality. In 1348-50 the Black Plague struck, killing 25-33% of
the already weakened and decimated population. Major peasant uprisings and
riots occurred at different times and locations across Europe. While many of
these were brutally suppressed, they helped bring the eventual demise of the
feudal system, beginning around 1350.
Brown ( 2001 ) states that, at least in England, there was some buffering for
agriculture against poor climate conditions. A consolidation of land holdings
created a more efficient production situation. British farmers constructed ditches
for irrigation and water control, and drained marshes to increase arable land. The
balance of productionwas shifted away fromgrains to sheep (imported fromSpain),
which survived the variations in climate better. However, the population of Britain
peaked about 1310 and decreased thereafter, demonstrating that the country was
not immune to disaster. Between 1319 and 1322, wheat prices in Winchester rose
from about 3 shillings per quarter to about 17 shillings. Approximately 10-15% of
the population died during these critical decades of the fourteenth century.
Wars and the attitude of the church did not help. With the demise of feudalism
came the rise of nationalism. England tried to conquer Scotland beginning
around 1280, and by 1350 was semi-successful. England also had continuing
troubles with France, and the Hundred Years War began in 1337. As Brown
( 2001 ) states, it is always easier and less costly to focus on warfare than on the
social and economic ills of society. The church blamed the human race in
general, and God's wrath in particular, but its influence was on the wane.
The governments attempted to maintain trade and tried to establish currency
exchange to replace barter. This worked reasonably well in some places, espe-
cially Italy. Wine, wool, and salt were important trade commodities. But
increased flooding closed many salt mines and wine production was severely
affected by the cold, wet weather. In England, the wine trade collapsed by 1327,
partially due to poor quality and partially due to anti-government reactions.
On the more positive side, there were some developments and adaptations that
allowed better survival in parts of Europe. Some of these are listed in Table 8.2 .
However, it seems clear that a worsening climate exacerbated the social ten-
sions, both within and between countries. Therefore, overall adaptation was
poor, and by the end of the fourteenth century, the population of Europe was
considerably smaller, and economic conditions considerably worse, than those
of a century earlier.
8.3.2 The seventeenth century
Between 1600 and 1700, the LIA culminated in the lowest temperatures in
Europe since the end the Ice Age, some 11 000 years before. This was a period
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