Human response to climate change - The Global Climate System: Patterns, Processes, and Teleconnections - page 256

Unfortunately, the European hard-hooved animals began to have an immediate
negative impact on the local environment (Vail 1998 ). Pastures were damaged
or destroyed through erosion, for which there was no recovery. Even the use of
seasonal grazing at higher elevations in summer brought no relief from this
problem, and in fact it spread. Erosion interfered with the quality of and amount
of hay, which was required for winter fodder for the animals. Inside protection in
large sod barns, and enough fodder for up to nine months a year, was needed if
the animals were to survive the harsh winters. However, the number of cattle and
their quality were considered to be an indication of wealth in the Norwegian
society, and therefore their presence was essential.
McGovern ( 1991 ) reviews the lifestyle of the colonists from archaeological
records. The poorer colonists were unable to maintain a full agricultural lifestyle.
However, the sea was readily accessible through the fjords, and had fish and
seasonal migrations of seals. In spring, community seal hunts were held. Distances
to the migrations were often a problem, and the hunts were dangerous, resulting
in regular loss of life. Seals provided a range of essential items, from fur skins, to
meat for food, to bone for fish hooks and sewing needles. Seals were not important
to the upper strata of Greenland society until late in the settlement period.
Archaeological evidence described by McGovern ( 1991 ) and Vail ( 1998 )
shows that the Greenland colonies were organized according to wealth and
status, based on the Norwegian model. There were severe economic inequalities.
At the very bottom were the poor peasants, normally under feudal tenancy to the
landowners. Their lifestyle was meager, work was hard, and they were required
to contribute more than 20% of their limited products per year to the landowners
and the church. The landowners controlled much of the wealth in the colonies,
and had their own hierarchy. They were subservient to the Christian church. The
church owned vast tracts of the best land and had the best cattle herds. The
structure of the society was conservative, rigid, inflexible, and authoritarian. As
an example, caribou in Greenland took on the status of deer in Europe. Caribou
could only be hunted by the upper classes, and were not available to supplement
food and equipment supplies of the peasants. While this helped preserve the
caribou from extinction, a source of food was cut off for the working classes.
As the colonies became settled, and the landowners more wealthy, the church
became more dominant in society. By the end of 1100, Norway was unified
under one king, and under the Christian religion. The church, in combination
with the landowners, controlled the trade and commercial economy. A big
source of revenue was dried salted cod, called stockfish, which was used as a
surrogate currency. According to McGovern and Pendikaris ( 2000 ) stockfish
was an indicator of wealth, and could be traded for many things, including barley
to brew beer. Another source of trade income was walrus ivory tusks and hides,
and polar bear hides, obtained during hunting expeditions to the Arctic during
summer. In 1167, the Greenland colony traded a live polar bear cub for a church
bishop. Even under good climate conditions, these hunts were costly, both in