Geography Reference
In-Depth Information
an 'enclosed landscape' (Litton, 1968). Landforms can be
considered as a scene's backbone and thereby influence its
perception. Three categories can be distinguished: moun-
tainous, hilly, and flat plain (and plateau). For riverscapes,
the flat surface of water maximises the contrast with bor-
dering landscape elements framing the view (Lee, 1979).
Shafer and Brush (1977) suggested that 'without the con-
trast of dark vertical masses of trees in the distance, the
presence of water could actually diminish scenic qual-
ity' (p. 255). A too large part of water may make a scene
appear monotonous and reduce its aesthetic value. Open-
ness influences the comprehension of water views and the
ability to project oneself into them. Riverscape openness
is determined by the visible vertical elements: tall veg-
etation (such as alluvial forest) and buildings (bridges,
dams, farmhouses) in the riverside. 'Landscapes that are
too open offer little visual stimulation, and those that are
too closed block one's view and cut off the possibility
of more information' (Kelsch, 2000, p. 177). Spacious-
ness and mystery of waterscapes play an important role
in riverscape preference. Mosley (1989) established that
'scenic attractiveness increases with the forest cover, the
visible relief or grandeur, the area in alpine barrens visible,
the area of water, and with the confinement of the river
by overhanging vegetation or valley sides' (p. 10). There
is a fascination for waters in mountainous settings that
provide the opportunity to see unobstructed views into
the distance (Shafer and Richards, 1974; Herzog, 1985).
In the same way as the landform enclosure and water
elements, riparian vegetation can be very visually domi-
nant. Vegetation can reduce the amount of light and alter
the vision of landscape elements. This mysteriousness
creates a sense of interest and attracts the observers inso-
far as they wish to obtain additional information (Lee,
1979). Some of the most highly preferred scenes include
river views through open trees (Levin, 1977). Concern-
ing marshes, the preference rates are higher for those
with foreground vegetation and clear water reflections
(Ellsworth, 1982). However, the presence of foreground
vegetation may detract from the visual quality of scenes
where the intermediate zone is largely forested (Shafer and
Brush, 1977). The observer negatively perceives tangled
vegetation, for it 'does not allow for visual penetration
or physical penetration into the shoreline environment'
(Lee, 1979, p. 578).
Whereas river managers have removed trees from banks
because of the possible negative effects on flood control,
a percentage of the scene in trees is associated with
increases in scenic beauty (Brown and Daniel, 1991). The
desire for trees may turn out to be so overwhelming that
vegetation is more influential than the details of the river
form in assessing water landscape preference (House and
Sangster, 1991). 'The viewer interprets a tree standing on
a waterfront as an imaginal or alternative self' (Kubota,
1997, p. 184). In New Zealand, Mosley established that
the percentage of native forest in a scene was the best
singular variable to predict riverscape attractiveness. On
Japanese urban riverfronts, the preference is for cherry
trees (particularly in full bloom), followed by willow (with
the branches descending near the water surface) and other
deciduous species (Kubota, 1997). A linear arrangement
of cherry trees with a 10 m interval is highly appreciated.
Likewise, in Great Britain, the public's ideal river setting
includes an open deciduous forest (House and Sangster,
1991). Indeed, the fleetingness of flower blooming and leaf
falling mirrors the life of human beings. The authors also
identified a strong preference for vegetational diversity,
'a mixture of grass and plants or grass and trees' (House
and Fordham, 1997, p. 37) either overhanging or lining
both sides of the river, but 'without an overabundance
of vegetation in the water' (House and Sangster, 1991,
p. 315).
Therefore, increasing the amount of vegetation at the
river's edge - and not only the cosmetic placement of
occasional trees at a suitable distance from the river
bank - has the potential to enhance riverscape aesthet-
ics and attractiveness, insofar as access to the bank and
glimpses of water remain possible between open trees. The
findings show substantial support for management strate-
gies that include riparian forest and meandering channels.
Research has consistently shown preference for land-
scapes that are perceived as 'natural' and 'less built'
(Kaplan et al., 1998; Van den Berg et al., 2003). Hodgson
and Thayer (1980) demonstrated that the scenes labelled
as natural (e.g. lakes) were appreciated more highly than
the same scenes that were labelled as artificial (e.g. reser-
voirs). People prefer a 'shallow pool with still water' to
'the same shaped pool drained of water and covered with
a glass surface' (Nasar and Li, 2004, p. 234). The natural
condition appeared as more attractive than the artificial
material. Calvin et al. (1972) studied preferences for nat-
ural landscapes and found that the scenes of waterfalls
and rapids are regarded as higher in natural scenic beauty
than a photograph depicting an algae bloom. Likewise,
photographs of swampy regions were rated relatively low
in preference by 49 participants in a wilderness outing
program (Kaplan, 1984). In the Ellsworth study (1982), all
the river scenes (n
=
40) were rated higher in preference
than the marsh slides (n
=
20). Preferences for marshes
and swampy areas are negatively correlated to coherence
Search WWH ::
Custom Search