Geography Reference
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by the lowest and highest flow events. These findings are
consistent with economic studies that used contingent
valuation techniques. Recreationists' willingness-to-pay
for the maintenance of in-stream flow levels increases
with flow up to a point, and then decreases for further
increases in flow (Daubert and Young, 1981; Brown et al.,
1991). The critical level differs by type of recreation activ-
ity. Anglers, for instance, prefer lower flow levels than
floaters and streamside users (Loomis, 1987).
Perception is also affected by the water characteris-
tics, as underlined by the former channel survey. Some
archetypes explain why some types of landscape scenes
are more highly regarded than others. Clean water is
perceived as a vital fluid, a source of life, and a pre-
eminently pure element, whereas LW evokes human
death and is seen as an intolerable body polluting the
maternal and divine element (Bachelard, 1942; Durand,
1969). Ordinary persons place a great importance upon
the naturalness of river corridors, and particularly upon
the quality of water (House and Fordham, 1997). When
visually evaluating waterscapes, the lay public pays atten-
tion to a limited number of cues potentially affecting
water quality (Table 18.5). Green and Tunstall (1992)
suggested that a polluted river makes sense more eas-
ily than an unpolluted river. Individuals who judge the
quality to be good use fewer features than those who
judge the quality to be polluted. In the study of House
and Sangster (1991), people perceived only three visual
features to be indicators of good water quality: 'adults
fishing', 'many fish' and where observers 'can see the river
bottom'. By contrast, at the other end of the water quality
spectrum, some criteria such as unusual color or smell,
muddy water, presence of water plants and algae, green
scum or foam on surface, protruding rubbish in river, or
water movement and clarity, seem to indicate polluted
water (Dinius, 1981; Moser, 1984; House and Sangster,
1991; Wilson et al., 1995; Smith et al., 1995b). These clues
may detract from respondents' ratings of preference, and
reduced appeal for particular recreational activities, such
as boating, swimming, walking, and fishing. The public
shows a rather optimistic attitude towards water quality.
Indeed, 'pollution is generally judged to be less seri-
ous than it actually is, from the biological point of view'
(Moser, 1984, p. 209). Clarity dominates if water is brown
yet clear, and colour alters clarity perception if the water
is turbid but blue. To a certain extent, the visual quality
of yellow water seems more acceptable when perceived as
Table 18.5
Criteria of perceived water quality (After Dinius
(1981); Moser (1984); House and Sangster (1991); Gregory
and Davis (1993); Smith et al. (1995aa,b); House and
Fordham (1997).
Criteria
Perceived Water Quality
Good Water Quality
Polluted Water
Color
Absence, blue and
green
Grey, yellow and
brown
Aquatic plants
and algae
No water plants
Algae blooming
Floating debris
Absence
Litter, wooding
debris,
Foam and scum
Absence
Presence
Odor
Absence
Unusual or bad
smell
Movement
Flowing water
Standing water
Clarity
Clear
Muddy
Others
Presence of fish,
visible bottom of
the river
Rubbish
natural (Smith et al., 1995a). Turbid and brown waters,
however, are considered 'unlikely to be highly regarded
for bathing or aesthetic water use' (Smith et al., 1995b,
p. 50). Some features evidently play a significant role
in the discrimination of waterscapes, e.g. water move-
ment and colour, spaciousness, or a mountainous setting.
Rushing water received the higher preference rates, and
swampy areas by far the lowest. Between these categories,
the large bodies of water are preferred to rivers and lakes,
because of their spaciousness, or 'a sand-and-surf mental-
ity among [the] college-age raters' (Herzog, 1985, p. 237).
Recently, Bulut and Yilmaz (2009) asked 128 university
students to rate their visual preference for six waterscapes.
In descending order of preference, the photographs were:
(a) an urban pool with jet and still water, (b) a waterfall
in forested setting, (c) standing water at the bottom of
a deep valley with steep rocky walls, (d) a dam scene,
(e) a wetland scene with forested background, and (f) a
braided river scene.
Preference for riverscapes is more strongly affected by
the environment of the river than by the characteristics of
the river itself (Mosley, 1989; House and Sangster, 1991;
Smith et al., 1995a; Kaplan et al., 1998). The waterscape is
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