Green Energy Labelling - Green Energy and Efficiency: An Economic Perspective - page 134

consumer confusion between third-party-certi ed and self-declared labels [ 27 ]. In

this sense, some labels not certi ed by a third party can be vulnerable to claims of

greenwashing, affecting the reputation of green

rms and their products [ 8 ].

3 Types of Energy Labels

3.1 Energy Eco-Labels

There is a wide variety of energy eco-labels around the world. The information that
they provide is usually related to best energy performances and the use of
renewable resources. There are also other sorts of eco-label that are based on life
cycle analysis. These cover all sorts of products, not only those related to energy.
In-depth studies of some labels of this type can be found in [ 1 , 21 ], which analyses
labelling around the world.
Perhaps the best-known case of an energy eco-label is the pro-

gramme, launched in the United States in 1992 by the US Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA). Energy Star is now present in many countries around the globe,
including the EU, Canada, Japan, Taiwan, New Zealand and Australia. This has
been made possible by formal international arrangements, through which products
approved in one country are licenced to display the label in other participating
countries and product information is shared. Although the US founders retain
responsibility for developing endorsement criteria, there is a process for consulting
all partners when developing new speci

' Energy Star '

cations [ 22 ].
Energy Star is a voluntary programme run by the US Government which seeks
to reduce air pollution and climate change by promoting the use of energy-ef

cient

products. When a manufacturer meets the energy ef ciency criteria established by

the EPA for a particular product category, it is permitted to show the label in its
products and advertisements.
There are various Energy Star programmes: Energy Star for of

ce equipment,

the Energy Star Homes programme for building energy-ef cient homes and the

Energy Star Building programme aimed at commercial buildings, where energy
wastage is widespread. The ce equipment

has now been extended to a wide variety of products such as consumer electronics,
domestic appliances, heating and cooling systems, lights and lighting, exit signs and
transformers [ 1 ].
According to the EPA [ 9 ] nearly 4 out of 5 US households recognise the Energy
Star label, and American consumers have purchased more than one billion energy
Energy Star-labelled products, which have resulted in enough energy savings to
power 20 million homes. This scheme is thus considered a successful example of
energy eco-labelling (Figs. 2 , 3 ).
However, not all eco-labels are successful. In fact, there are good examples of
labelling that have not met expectations and have been considered a failure. A case

rst and best-known programme for of