Environmental Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
Not everyone is a reciprocator. Free riders - individuals who seek to
benefit from the work of others without proportional reciprocation - are
also common, though even free riders must reciprocate within subcultures.
Free riders are often humiliated and vilified, and this signal provides a useful
mechanism to reinforce cooperative behaviour by the majority (Bowles &
Gintis 2002).
Reciprocity, both direct and indirect, forms the basis of all systems of
morality (Nowak & Sigmund 2000). Rewards and punishment for good and
bad behaviour are not just integral to Judaeo-Christian faiths but also to
Hinduism and Buddhism. Reciprocating (whether a favour for a favour or
an eye for an eye) contributes to a reputation. In the smaller communities
from which modern civilisation has evolved, reputation can be considered as
a naturally selected favoured mechanism to limit inequality. Reputation is a
form of public information encapsulating myriad acts, not only by individu-
als but also by families, tribes and nations. Reputation provides a means by
which strangers can penalise and reward past behaviour. A good reputation
is a kind of passport, smoothing transactions with strangers. On the other
hand, a poor reputation is like travelling in a car with a flat tyre. People are
suspicious, unhelpful and sometimes hostile.
Groups also acquire reputations, but sometimes these may be unde-
served. The reputation of the 'other' often acts as a barrier, reducing both
cooperation and contact. This is especially obvious between groups with dif-
ferent languages, religions, customs and socio-economic status. Adverse rep-
utation easily merges with caricature, prejudice and racism, and this can
help to generate and sustain a self-fulfilling 'lock-in' where both sides hold
extreme positions about the other, often over generations. Prejudice is likely
to reduce contact between individuals in the characterised groups, leading to
more segregation, and even fewer opportunities to weaken that prejudice.
At the same time, the shared customs and practices that may be regarded
by outsiders as justifying contempt and prejudice (such as beef eating may
appear to some Hindus) can foster and nurture support and cooperation
within subgroups. Shared dress and slang may express solidarity, and, some-
times, nascent opposition against majorities perceived as oppressive. In
France the dominant culture recently banned the wearing to school of head-
scarves by Muslim schoolgirls. It remains to be seen whether this will lead to
more or less integration of Muslims among French society. It could easily
lead to greater lock-in and more mutual resentment, unless parallel efforts
