Risk Assessment for Safe Drinking Water Supplies - Global Drinking Water Management and Conservation - page 113

It should be noted that watershed boundaries do not correspond to jurisdictional
or political boundaries. An integrated watershed management approach is required
to address the economic interests of stakeholders within different political bound-
aries and attempt to reconcile con

icting interests (USEPA 2007 ). An integrated
management approach will incorporate all the initiatives and actions of regulatory
agencies as well as local watershed associations. As noted in Chap. 2 , the process of
integrated watershed management is continuous (USEPA n.d.).

6.2.2 Source Water Pollution Control Measures

For effective source water pollution control, there is a need for effective legislative
actions to control sources of water pollution (point and nonpoint sources) in target
watersheds. A brief discussion of controlling point and nonpoint sources of pol-
lution, and a brief description of ecological risk assessment (ERA) and its appli-
cation to watershed management are provided below. ERA is practiced in the US
and is worthy of serious consideration for other large areas where there is a risk of
nonpoint source pollution.

6.2.2.1 Point Source Pollution

Point source pollution can originate from sewage treatment plants, industrial plant
ef uents, and animal farms. Point sources of water pollution are still a major

problem in most developing countries due to lack of infrastructure, regulation, or its
enforcement. In the U.S. and most other developed countries, the quality of ef

u-
ents discharged from sewage treatment plants and industrial facilities is highly
regulated, and thus these ef cant threat to the

quality of receiving surface waters, unless wastewater treatment is inadequate or
faulty. But animal production and farms are an exception. Below is a discussion of
farm animal production problems and water pollution control in the United States,
where animal production farms still pose a major threat to water quality. In the U.
S., there are about 450,000 farms with animal feeding operations. About 85 percent
of these facilities are small with fewer than 250 animals, but there are many animal
feeding operations with more than 1,000 animals (USEPA 2002 ). These large farms
are called

uents do not generally pose a signi

or CFAOs.
In 1998, the U.S. government released the Clean Water Action Plan. The Plan
includes a

“ Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations ”

for animal feeding operations, which tackles
the large amount of manure and other wastes discharged by animal farms to water
bodies. For CFAOs, farm owners/operators are required to have a permit that
ensures safe disposal of all the manure, urine, and dead animal matter. The farms
are subject to inspection and must have a comprehensive nutrient management plan

“ Uni ed National Strategy ”