Water Quality Management - River Dynamics and Integrated River Management - page 550

water quality management or pollution control such as the U.S. Federal Water Pollution Control Act of
1972 (PL92-500), commonly known as the Clean Water Act (CWA), and the European Water Framework
Directive (WFD). Full enactment of and compliance with these laws can greatly improve water quality,
but it is a long and expensive process. The National Research Council (2001b) reported that nearly
30 years after enactment of the CWA and after the expenditure of billions of dollars for construction of
domestic and industrial wastewater treatment and other mitigation projects and billions more for operation
of these projects “there are about 21,000 polluted river segments, lakes, and estuaries making up over
300,000 river and shore miles (480,000 km) and 5 million lake acres (2 million hectares)” [parts in italics
added]. Thus, a country like China that is just beginning to deal with water quality management in its
rivers must be prepared for long, but worthwhile struggle to obtain improved water quality in its rivers
and receiving lakes, estuaries, and seas.
In China, the current quality of some rivers is quite poor. According to the “Bulletin of Water Resources
of China” for 2004, among the 412 monitored points of the 7 main rivers in China, the proportions of
the Grades ĉ - ċ , Grades Č - č , and worse than Grade č waters are 41.8%, 30.3%, and 27.9%. Waters
of Grades ĉ - ċ are suitable for use as water supply, Grade Č waters are suitable for industrial water
use and non-contact recreation areas, and Grade č waters are only suitable for agricultural water use and
landscaping requirements. Thus, water at nearly 30% of all monitored river locations in China is not
suitable for any use (below grade č ), but in the developed areas the percentage less than Grade V is far
worse (based on data from 2000): Liao River -37.3%, Hai He River -58.7%, Huai He River 47.4%, and
rivers in southeastern China -53.5%. In 2000 the quality of water in the Yantze River was generally good
with more than 80% of the samples in Grades ĉ - ċ , but this is misleading. The 27 billion m 3 wastewater
load comprises only about 3% of the massive flow of the Yangtze River (980 billion m 3 ). Thus, the
pollution is diluted such that Grades ĉ - ċ are met, but when the flow discharges to the East China Sea
the massive nutrient load leads to the red tide problems previously discussed.
9.1.2 Pollution
In the 1970s the definition of pollution most accepted by scientists was “unreasonable interferences of
water quality with the beneficial uses of the resources” (Novotny, 2003, p. 25). However, the perception
of beneficial use was different to different people, which was a problem. Clark et al. (1977, p. 242) noted
“Acceptable water quality is dependent upon the requirements of many kinds of water consumers.
Characteristics that make water unsuitable to one user may be unimportant or even desirable for another.”
Most substances that are considered “pollutants” occur in nature and have some beneficial properties for
the environment. For example, Fair et al. (1971, p. 638) noted that if pollution is kept within bounds it
contributes to the fertility of the receiving water and resultant aquatic population.
From an economist's viewpoint, pollution is the least expensive way for producers and consumers to
get rid of wastes (Braden, 1988). Excessive waste loads arise and “pollution” as defined by interference
with beneficial uses occurs when the waste disposal capacity of the environment is provided free of charge
(Solow, 1971) and when producers and consumers do not incorporate into their products, consumption,
and behavior the cost of damage resulting from pollution. An economic externality occurs when those
who produce or consume goods are separated from those who suffer or bear adverse consequences caused
by pollution generated by the producers and consumers (Novotny, 2003, p. 52). Upstream pollution causing
downstream water-quality problems is a classic case of an economic externality. For example, research
done at the University of Illinois in the 1970s indicated that the sedimentation related costs of on farm
erosion were eight to ten times greater on downstream reservoirs and channels than the cost of lost
productivity on the farm because of erosion (Gunetermann et al., 1975). It should also be remembered that
pollution also has other non-economic costs, such as declining life expectancy, lost working hours due to