Environmental Engineering Reference
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Fig. 18 Photographs of the stepwise R2R printing and coating processes in fabrication of the
modules: a flexography printing of Ag grid; b-d slot die coating of hcPEDOT:PSS,
P3HT:PCBM, and PEDOT:PSS, respectively; e flat-bed screen printing of Ag paste; and f final
module after step e. 2013 Elsevier. Reprinted, with permission from Ref. [ 120 ]
of mass consumers. ITO currently remains the biggest hurdle in reaching this
objective and finding a cost-effective replacement to ITO that can be solution
processed in a vacuum-free environment is crucial for PSCs to witness a com-
mercial reality. While all but ITO layers in a PSC stack are solution based that can
be processed on a roll-to-roll coating and printing line at fast web speeds
([10 m min -1 ), the processing of a patterned ITO substrate requires multistep
including sputtering and etching, ultimately incurring more than 50 % of the cost
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