Germany, the Netherlands, Denmark, and Sweden - Comparing Environmental Policies in 16 Countries - page 71

The government is a constitutional monarchy, nominally headed by
King Willem Alexander. Its constitution was originally set forth in 1815
and has been amended many times. The First Chamber of parliament,
which has limited power, is elected by the councils of the twelve provinces.
The Second Chamber, which is the core of the government, is elected
directly by the people. More than eight parties are represented, includ-
ing a Green Party with four seats out of 150 (a recent decrease from ten).
No one party can command a majority, so they must organize a coalition
after each election. In recent years, politics has been unstable. One coali-
tion collapsed in less than three months. Immigration policy has been
the chief controversy because some do not welcome newcomers from the
Middle East and Africa, especially Muslims. Support for the environment
has remained strong, with backing in most parties.
The Green Left Party began in 1989 with a small coalition of four leftist
parties, which won six seats in parliament. The following year the four
merged to become a single party. Besides favoring the environment,
it advocated drastic income redistribution and more benefits for immi-
grants. The Green Left Party won victories at the municipal and provin-
cial level. It opposed economic growth based on the market, calling for
government intervention and decentralization. In 1998 the Green Left
won 7% of the vote in the national election to get 11 seats in parliament,
and the next year won 12% of the vote in the European Parliament elec-
tion. More recently, it has had four members in the national parliament.
Democrats 66, although without the word “green” in its name, is a liberal
party that firmly supports environmental protection. It has had as many
as 14 seats out of 150 in the Second Chamber of Parliament, and held port-
folios in the cabinet.
In 1972 the government established a Ministry of Public Health and
Environmental Hygiene, and in 1982 the functions were moved to the
Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning, and the Environment. The ministry
issues comprehensive plans every 4 years. To implement the plans, the gov-
ernment favors negotiating individual agreements with industries instead
of mandating universal controls. The Netherlands passed the Water Supply
Act in 1957, the Pesticides Act in 1962, the Surface Water Pollution Act in
1969, and the Air Pollution Act in 1970. As in other Western democracies,
the Environmental Ministry often finds itself in conflict with three other
ministries: Economic Affairs, Agriculture, and Traffic and Waterworks.
The provinces have limited power, with their heads appointed by the