Russia and Its Neighbors - Comparing Environmental Policies in 16 Countries - page 222

(formerly the secret police, the KGB). The prime minister directs the other
ministries. Unlike Western democracies, the ministers are not members
of parliament but are typically career bureaucrats.
In the 2012 election Putin once more ran for the presidency on the
United Russia Party ticket, which he won with 64% of the vote. There were
many accusations of fraud, and thousands demonstrated against the elec-
tion in December. International observers concluded that the voting itself
was satisfactory, but that the counting of the votes was not fair in a third of
the polling places. Nevertheless, Putin returned to power, and appointed
Medvedev prime minister as he had agreed before the election campaign.
Tensions between the central government in Moscow and the regional
governments have characterized politics since 1991. In fact there are 89
different regional bodies. The Russian Federation consists of 21 republics,
47 oblasts (provinces), nine krays (territories), ten okrugs (autonomous
districts), and two cities (Moscow and St. Petersburg). The 21 republics are
based on ethnic groups. Examples are Dagestan and North Ossetia in the
Caucasus Mountains. The most troublesome has been Chechnya, which
has twice tried to win independence and is now occupied by Russian
troops who installed a pro-Moscow leader. (These are not to be confused
with the now independent former Soviet republics like Georgia, Armenia,
or Azerbaijan.) Russian federalism has been described as asymmetrical
because national laws and programs do not necessarily apply equally to
all subdivisions. Putin moved to regularize the system by combining the
subdivisions into seven new federal districts, over which he appointed the
head. Next, he provided that all governors of the subdivisions would be
appointed by him.
Environmental laws in the USSR date to the 1960s when many of the
15 constituent republics passed laws. The Russian Republic passed a
law stating that “conservation is a major state task and a concern of all
people.” 2 Specific air pollution regulations were promulgated in 1973 and
the Air Quality Control Act passed in 1980. The Sanitary Epidemiology
Administration began monitoring air quality in 1955 and in 1978 gained
enforcement authority. The 1972 Water Code provided for permits for use
and discharge. Laws enacted at the time required planning and protec-
tion of the land. The USSR Council of Ministers adopted a resolution to
require recycling. The official Soviet standards were strict. For instance,
whereas the United States permitted 10 milligrams of carbon monoxide
per cubic meter of air, the Soviets permitted only 6 milligrams. These
laws, however, were not enforced. In the 1970s the military banned