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one of several particular formalized codes, to be rendered mechanically, only one
such tool excels far above any previous invention. In discussing programming, there
is little impetus to mention couches or media. Though these may possibly occur
in isolated cases, they are unrelated to programming and thus our discussion here
regarding this programming tool.
12.2
Development
We humans are unique from other species, in that we undergo an unusually long
period of development. Since this is 'costly' in terms of survival fitness, it is unlikely
to be accidental. It also indicates that the minds we enjoy are qualitatively different
than minds assembled for briefer purposes. Shorter-lived organisms and machines
function sufficiently without need to fine-tune behaviors to an unpredictable envi-
ronment. Though Behaviorism was generally abandoned decades ago, the model of
instrumental conditioning (IC) remains deep-rooted in popular conceptions about
learning. A ramification of IC is the view of communication proposed by Claude
Shannon (Ash 1965 ; Shannon and Weaver 1949 ). Even that children are tested
and receive grades is a form of reward/punishment aimed at training for a desired
response. Though many children do benefit from this traditional methodology, it is
hardly universally helpful, and can even be debilitating for students (Dewey 1910 ;
Kohn 2008 ; Phillips and Soltis 2009 ; Tough 2012 ).
12.2.1
Machine Learning
No doubt, the inner workings of the pre-processor in the computer, may strike
many readers as unnecessarily esoteric. Unfortunately, the counterintuitive details
addressed in this preliminary section illustrate are a fundamental premise in BA and
give AR its role therein. Beyond casual conversation and speculation, the common
sense model of machine learning applies exclusively between machines and not
to organic brains (further discussed in Wright 2012a , 2013a ). Shannon's heavily
influential notion of communication is prohibitively restricted from development,
and thus learning, in any biological-like sense, where learning is not entirely
synonymous with causality (Fischer 2011 ). In Shannon's defense, much more is
known about the learning process, than was available to him at the time. Though
we might refer to successful strategies of stimulus storage, transferal, retrieval, and
broadcast, these are only preliminary tasks, insufficient to account for “borrowed
intelligence” (Wright 2013b ). Particularly insightful has been the more recent
distinction in linguistics between signaling and communication .
A qualitative difference lies between signaling, where a unitary message is sent
and received and is not generalize-able to other contexts, and communicating, where
multitudes of messages effect the further stream of messages as per the needs of
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