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will be set based on a mix and match of the criteria outlined above—hopefully in
cooperation with other local entities since propagules and species cross boundaries
with trade, transportation, wind, or with animals as vectors.
Sharing data, modelling tools, and expertise is the fi rst step towards eff ective risk
assessment. Coordination and cooperation are the keys. Integrated teams of taxono-
mists, survey and monitoring specialists, economists, landscape ecologists, model-
lers, remote sensing specialists, and information technology experts are needed to
meet invasive species challenges at local to international scales. Increased public
awareness and involvement (e.g. volunteer networks) may be needed to populate
databases to map the abundance and distributions of many invasive species.
Finally, predictive modelling and synthesis will become increasingly important
in risk assessment (Fig. 2.2). Targeting the few areas with clusters of invasive spe-
cies may cost-eff ective. New species are likely entering every country each week.
Even if only a small fraction of these species become established, and a fraction of
those spread and cause harm (e.g. like zebra mussels have since the 1970s and West
Nile virus has since 1999 in the United States), then the potential high cost of
ignoring or not containing invasive species must be considered. Interdisciplinary
scientists and modellers will need to work closely with agencies, non-government
organizations, and communities to reduce the costs associated with harmful inva-
sive species.
Several members of our research team contributed ideas to this manuscript. Michele
Lee, Yuka Otsuki, and Geneva Chong were instrumental in literature review. h e
U.S. Geological Survey and National Aeronautics and Space Administration
(NRA-03-OES-03) provided funding for the research and modelling aspects of
the paper. Logistical support was provided by the USGS Fort Collins Science
Center, Colorado State University's Natural Resource Ecology Laboratory, and
NASA Goddard Space Flight Center. Sunil Kumar and Paul Evangelista provided
helpful comments on an earlier version of the paper. To all we are grateful.
