Environmental Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
and irreversible (Colborn
1993
). In addition, transgenerational exposure can
result from the exposure of the mother to a chemical at any time throughout her
life before producing offspring, due to persistence of EDCs in body fat. EDCs
can then be mobilized during egg laying or pregnancy and lactation (Colborn
1993
). EDCs include pesticides and their metabolites, DDT and its metabolites,
pentachlorophenol (PCP), alkylphenols (e.g. penta- to nonylphenols, 4-tert-
octylphenol) polychlorinated compounds (e.g. polychlorinated dibenzo-
p
-di-
oxins, polychlorinated dibenzofurans, and polychlorinated biphenyls: PCBs),
bisphenolic compounds (phenylphenol and bisphenol A), polybrominated diphe-
nyl ethers, nematocides, naphthenic acids, pharmaceuticals (diethylstilbestrol),
triclosan (2,4,4
′
-trichloro-2
′
4
′
-trichloro-2
′
-hydroxydiphenyl ether), phthalate
esters (e.g. benzylbutyl phthalate, diethylhexyl phthalate, diphenylphthalate), ster-
oids (e.g. ethynyl estradiol, 17
β
-estradiol, diethylstilbestrol), natural estrogens
(e.g. 17
β
-sitosterol, estriol, estrone), natural androgens (e.g. testosterone), natural
phytoestrogens (soy, alfalfa and clover), naturally occurring compounds (lignans,
coumestans, isofavones, mycotoxins), parabenes (hydroxybenzoate derivatives),
organotins, and inorganic metal ions (cadmium, lead, mercury, antimony, uranium)
(Citulski and Farahbakhsh
2010
; Richardson and Ternes
2011
; Colborn
1993
;
Bolger et al.
1998
; Servos
1999
; Petrovi
et al.
2001
; Rhind
2002
; Montgomery-
Brown et al.
2003
; Rudel et al.
2003
; Ishibashi
2004
; Kimura et al.
2004
; Auriol et
al.
2006
; Diamanti-Kandarakis et al.
2009
; Xu et al.
2011
).
Microorganisms of concern are
Cryptosporidium
,
Giardia
,
E. coli
, pathogens, aer-
omonas, coliphages, viruses, total coliforms,
Helicobacter pylori
, enterococci,
E. coli
O157:H7
and H1N1 (swine flu) (Liu et al.
2009
,
2010
; Richardson and Ternes
2011
;
Yañez et al.
2009
; Li et al.
2010
; Vikesland and Wigginton
2010
; Wildeboer et al.
2010
).
ć
8.1 Sources of Emerging Contaminants in the Aquatic
Environment
Emerging contaminants are commonly derived from three major sources
(Richardson
2003
,
2007
; Mottaleb et al.
2005
,
2009
; Richardson and Ternes
2005
,
2011
; Buser et al.
2006
; Schmid et al.
2007
; Farré et al.
2008
; Kinney et al.
2008
;
Guo et al.
2009
; Ramirez et al.
2009
; Citulski and Farahbakhsh
2010
; Kumar and
Xagoraraki
2010
; Pal et al.
2010
; Yoon et al.
2010
; Kleywegt et al.
2011
; Yu et al.
2011
; Daughton and Ternes
1999
; Keith et al.
2001
; Heberer
2002
; Balmer et al.
2004
; Brooks et al.
2005
; Duedahl-Olesen et al.
2005
): (i) anthropogenic sources
including atmospheric deposition but very often involving the effluents released
by municipal, industrial, agricultural, and human activities, waste-water treatment
processes, and so on; (ii) natural sources, including most notably the algal blooms
in surface water; and (iii) photoinduced and microbial alteration of organic sub-
stances during transport from rivers to lakes, oceans or other water sources.
The key point sources of pharmaceuticals are discharge of wastes and drugs
from hospitals; discharge of expired and consumed drugs from household;
