Environmental Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
et al.
2011
; Yu et al.
2011
; Daughton and Ternes
1999
; Keith et al.
2001
; Heberer
2002
; Balmer et al.
2004
; Brooks et al.
2005
; Duedahl-Olesen et al.
2005
).
It is estimated that approximately 3000 different substances are used as phar-
maceutical ingredients, including painkillers, antibiotics, antidiabetics, beta-
blockers, contraceptives, lipid regulators, antidepressants and impotence drugs
(Richardson and Ternes
2011
). Pharmaceuticals that arise concern for possible
chronic toxicity are salicylic acid, diclofenac, propranolol, clofibric acid, carba-
mazepine, atenolol, bezafibrate, cyclophosphamide, ciprofloxacin, furosemide,
hydrochlorothiazide, ibuprofen, lincomycin, ofloxacin, ranitidine, salbutamol,
sulfamethoxazole, diltiazem, acetaminophen, chloramphenicol, florfenicol, thia-
mphenicol and fluoxetine (Pal et al.
2010
; Richardson and Ternes
2011
; Hoeger
et al.
2005
; Carlsson et al.
2006
; Pomati et al.
2006
; Kim et al.
2007
; Lai et al.
2009
).
Occurences of various hormones in natural waters as priority drinking water contam-
inants are estriol [E3], estrone, progesterone, 17
α
-ethinylestradiol [EE2], 17
α
-estradiol,
17
β
-estradiol [E2], testosterone, androstenedione, equilenin, equilin, mestranol,
and norethindrone (Pal et al.
2010
; Richardson and Ternes
2011
). Synthetic musk
compounds have diverse chemical structures, such as nitroaromatic groups includ-
ing musk xylene (1-tert-butyl-3,5-dimethyl-2,4,6-trinitrobenzene) and musk ketone
(4-tert-butyl-2,6-dimethyl-3,5-dinitroacetophenone); polycyclic structures including
7-acetyl-1,1,3,4,4,6-hexamethyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydronaphthalene (AHTN; trade name,
tonalide), 1,3,4,6,7,8-hexahydro-4,6,6,7,8,8-hexamethylcyclopenta-(g)-2-benzopyran
(HHCB; trade name, galaxolide), 4-acetyl-6-tert-butyl-1,1-dimethylindan (ADBI; trade
name, celestolide), dihydropentamethylindanone (DPMI; trade name, cashmeran), and
5-acetyl-1,1,2,3,3,6-hexamethylindan (AHMI, trade name phantolide). They are stud-
ied in waters, waste sludge and air (Richardson and Ternes
2011
; Gomez et al.
2009
;
Wombacher and Hornbuckle
2009
; Clara et al.
2011
; Ramirez et al.
2011
). It has been
shown that galaxolide is the most abundant musk detected in wastewater, reaching up to
2069 and 1432 ng L
−
1
in influents and effluents, respectively.
Siloxanes include cyclic siloxanes, octamethylcyclotetrasiloxane (D4), deca-
methylcyclopentasiloxane (D5), dodecamethylcyclohexasiloxane (D6), tetra-
decamethylcycloheptasiloxane (D7) and linear siloxanes (Richardson and Ternes
2011
; Kierkegaard et al.
2011
). Approximately 600 different pesticides are
applied annually in the US, whilst in Japan more than 450 active products are dis-
tributed annually among 5,400 commercial products. The two countries are key
pesticide users in the world (Chen et al.
2007
; Guo et al.
2009
; Majewski et al.
2000
; Derbalah et al.
2003
; Qiu et al.
2005
). Several pesticide degradation prod-
ucts are also of concern, such as: alachlor ethanesulfonic acid (ESA), alachlor
oxanilic acid (OA), acetochlor ESA, acetochlor OA, metolachlor ESA, meto-
lachlor OA, 3-hydroxycarbofuran, terbufos sulfone, alachlor ESA and OA, ace-
tochlor ESA and OA, metolachlor ESA and OA, thiophenol and phenyl disulfide
from dyfonate hydrolysis; 4-chloro-2-methylphenol and 4-chloro-2-methyl-6-ni-
trophenol from [(4-chloro-2-methylphenoxy)acetic acid] (MCPA) phototrans-
formation; desphenyl-chloridazon (DPC) and methylated-DPC of N-chloridazon
degradation (Richardson and Ternes
2011
; Buttiglieri et al.
2009
; Chiron et al.
2009
; Wang et al.
2010
).
