Agriculture Reference
In-Depth Information
This is manifested as nonround shapes, tearing of
the dough, and stress ridges on the dough surface.
The stress ridges are heated fi rst in baking,
forming blisters. Bread baked from an overstrong
dough also has a tough and unpalatably chewy
texture.
Quail (1996) suggested that fl our milled from
hard white wheat was desirable for Arabic bread
production, probably as a result of color and fl avor
advantages as well as higher water absorption
than soft wheat fl our. However, there is no con-
sensus that hard wheat is better than soft wheat
for Arabic bread production at equivalent protein
content and dough strength. Farvili et al. (1995)
compared fl ours from hard and soft wheats and
showed the only defi cit in bread made from the
soft wheat fl our to be pale crust color. Lower
starch damage may give reduced opportunity for
the production of reducing sugars for Maillard
browning when fl our is milled from soft wheat.
be low and that the dough should be extensible
enough to allow stretching without later contrac-
tion. These authors suggested that sheeting
quality was essential to the quality and shelf life
of chapatti bread.
Asian noodles
Asian noodles are made from both soft and hard
hexaploid wheat (
Triticum aestivum
L.), and in
large-scale industrial practice are most commonly
made by a mix, sheet, and cut process (Hou 2001;
Crosbie and Ross 2004; Ross and Hatcher 2005).
They can be differentiated on formulation (salted
vs. alkaline) and the type of postcutting process
applied: none (i.e., fresh or raw noodles), freez-
ing, drying, steaming and drying, steaming and
frying (instant noodles), parboiling, boiling then
freezing or vacuum packing, and others (Hou
2001; Crosbie and Ross 2004). Noodles can also
be differentiated on cross-sectional dimensions
and general eating qualities, such as whether the
noodles are fi rm or soft on biting and chewing.
A common requirement of all Asian noodle
products is an appealing appearance. This is
determined by a number of factors such as color
(hue), gloss (Solah et al., 2007), geometry, and
freedom from discoloration. Good appearance is
often associated with low fl our ash content, but
this acts only as a proxy for low levels of bran
admixture, which can be measured in other ways
as discussed in the fl our color section. The appear-
ance attributes most emphasized are color (hue)
and discoloration.
Noodle color varies from nearly white to deep
yellow (Crosbie and Ross 2004). The exact hue is
dependent on endosperm pigmentation and
noodle formulation (Mares and Campbell 2001).
Alkaline noodles are generally more yellow as a
result of the expression of the yellow color of fl a-
vonoid pigments at high pH (Mares et al., 1997;
Asenstorfer et al., 2006). Clean, clear coloration
(i.e., lack of discoloration) is also desired. Discol-
oration most commonly results from admixture of
bran particles in the fl our, and its impact increases
as fl our extraction rates increase (Kruger et al.,
1994; Hatcher and Symons 2000a). Larger bran
Single-layered bread
Single-layered bread includes leavened types
such as baladi and a variety of unleavened types
such as chapatti. Some leavened types are
restricted from pocketing by docking the dough
pieces (e.g., tanoor bread) (Qarooni 1996). Such
a wide variety of single-layered breads makes it
diffi cult to defi ne a common set of fl our quality
requirements and to succinctly describe their
optimum quality attributes. However, as all types
need to be sheeted or otherwise fl attened, a fl our
of moderate fl our protein content, with moderate
strength, and good extensibility would seem to be
a common need. For example a dough with exces-
sive resistance to extension (too strong) contracts
after sheeting (Ur-Rehman et al., 2007a), and this
is a problem for all thinly sheeted doughs. For
“naan” bread, a fl our of 12% protein with a mod-
erately short farinograph mix time (2.5 min),
moderately long farinograph stability (17 min),
and a high viscoamylograph (C.W. Brabender
Instruments, Inc., South Hackensack, New
Jersey) paste viscosity was found suitable (Farooq
et al., 2001). Ur-Rehman et al. (2007b) indicated
that the protein content of chapatti fl our should
