Environmental Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
The various sampling locations for pharmaceutical analyses are pictured in Fig. 1.
In this study, the median loads of individual pharmaceuticals are all calculated
for sampling yr 2002. Values below the limit of detection (LOD) are replaced with
zero to get a conservative estimate of pharmaceutical loads.
The average flow rate (
Q
a
) of water in the rivers at the sampling locations
Eysden (EYS), Lobith (LOB), and Schaar van Ouden Doel (SOD) (Fig. 1) are
10.925 × 10
9
m
3
yr
−1
, 93.793 × 10
9
m
3
yr
−1
, and 2.735 × 10
9
m
3
yr
−1
, respectively
(data extracted from Waterbase, 2006). The contribution of other inflow sources in
2002 has been estimated at 0.504 × 10
9
m
3
yr
−1
(Netherlands Hydrological Society
2004). The average flow rate at the sampling locations Andijk (AND), Maassluis
(MAA), and Haringvliet (HAR) (Fig. 1) are 19.856 × 10
9
m
3
yr
−1
, 50.188 × 10
9
m
3
yr
−1
,
and 30.332 × 10
9
m
3
yr
−1
, respectively. The contribution of other outflow sources
has been estimated at 9.795 × 10
9
m
3
yr
−1
(OSPAR 2004). The annual average
flowrates of sewage water equates 0.168 × 10
9
m
3
yr
−1
, and for industrial water the
corresponding amount is 0.002 × 10
9
m
3
yr
−1
(OSPAR 2004).
3
Results: Pharmaceutical Emissions in the Netherlands
The constructed database comprises over 100 pharmaceuticals of both human and
veterinary origin; pharmaceuticals were measured in surface, sewage, and indus-
trial water from the Netherlands in the period between 1996 and 2005. Most
analyses were performed on surface water samples (
n
= 634); only a limited
number of samples of sewage water (
n
= 13) and industrial water (
n
= 10) were
analyzed. It should be noted that the measurements on industrial waters are highly
biased, because primarily effluent water from industries that discharge large
quantities of pharmaceuticals (e.g., pharmaceutical companies and hospitals)
were sampled.
3.1
Occurrence and Loads of Pharmaceuticals in Surface-,
Sewage-, and Industrial Water in the Netherlands
Concentrations greater than the LOD of pharmaceuticals in surface-, sewage-,
and industrial-water from the Netherlands are visualized in box-whisker plots in
Figs. 2-4, respectively. In these figures, seven pharmaceutical groups are distin-
guished: (1) antibiotics, (2) veterinary antibiotics, (3) analgesics/antipyretics/
anti-inflammatory drugs, (4) X-ray contrast media, (5) fibrates/lipid regulators,
(6) beta blockers, and (7) others (anthelmentics, bronchitis/asthma drugs, antineo-
plastics, antioestrogen drugs, neuroleptics, anesthetics, steroids, and antifungal
veterinary drugs).
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