Emotional Responses During Music Listening - Guide to Brain-Computer Music Interfacing - page 116

6.6.1.3 Skin Conductance
Skin conductance (SC) is a measure of the electrical resistance of the skin and is
frequently used as a physiological effect of music. Skin conductance is related to
emotional arousal and has been proved to be a reliable measure of emotional
response in domains other than music. For high arousal conditions, skin conduc-
tance increases. Most of the existing studies show a signi cant increase in skin

conductance during music listening (Khalfa et al. 2002; Gomez and Danuser 2007 ;
Lindqvist et al. 2009 ). There are, however, studies indicating no substantial changes
in skin conductance during music listening (Blood and Zatorre 2001 ).

6.6.1.4 Blood Pressure
Blood pressure (BP) has been also used as a measure of physiological effect of
music. It can be easily measured by a sphygmomanometer. The existing results,
however, are contradictive. Most of the studies show an increase of blood pressure
to stimulative music and a decrease to sedative music (Baumgartner et al. 2006 ;
Gomez and Danuser 2004; Krumhansl 1997 ; Thayer and Faith 2001 ). There are,
however, studies where blood pressure decreased (Yamamoto et al. 2007; Iwanaga
et al. 1996 ) or did not change during music listening (Davis 1992 ; Davis-Rollans
and Cunningham 1987 ).

6.6.1.5 Muscular Tension
Muscular tension and particularly facial expressions are among the potential
measures of emotional states. Facial expressions are measured through EMG
(Electromyography) by placing electrodes on zygomaticus, corrugator, and orbic-
ularis oculi muscles. The results of existing measurements on zygomaticus and
corrugator showed increased zygomatic muscle activity during high arousal and
positive valence music, whereas greater corrugator activity was reported for musical
excerpts of negative valence (Witvliet and Vrana 2007 ). Thus, EMG activity can be
considered as a promising measure of valence. An additional important result is that
using facial EMG discrete emotions can be recognized (Thayer and Faith 2001 ;
Khalfa 2008). Facial expressions have been so far used mainly in video applications
and to a lesser degree in musical applications (music listening).

6.6.1.6 Finger or Body Temperature
Skin temperature changes have been linked to music listening in several studies.
Most of the existing studies show an increase of skin temperature during listening to
stimulating music (Baumgartner et al. 2006 ; Lundqvist et al. 2009 ). There are,
however, cases where a decrease (Krumnhansl 1997 ; Nater et al. 2006 )orno
changes at all (Blood and Zatorre 2001 ) were observed resulting in inconsistent
results.